Greek colony on the shore of the Kerch Strait. Where to find ancient Greece in Crimea. How much does it cost to buy a diploma in Ukraine

The city, whose name is translated from Greek as “beautiful harbor,” arose on the shores of Uzkaya Bay in the 4th century BC. e. By the end of the century, he became dependent on Chersonesos, and in the 3rd century BC. e. - into the sphere of Scythian interests. The strengthening of the Scythians forced the Greeks to significantly update the defensive line of the settlement, building into it a fortress wall with towers near the bay. However, the measures taken did not save the city - in the 2nd century BC. e. it nevertheless passed into the hands of the Scythians. At the end of the 2nd century BC. e. Kalos Limen became part of the power of Mithridates VI, but after his death it returned to the Scythians. The end of the settlement dates back to the 1st century AD. BC: it is believed that it was completely destroyed by the nomadic Sarmatian tribes invading from the northern steppes.

Kulchuk

High relief “Feasting Hercules”, found in 2008 at the Kulchuk settlement. Stored in the Kalos Limen museum in the village of Chernomorskoye

The settlement on the southern coast of the Tarkhankut Peninsula (2.5 km south of the modern village of Gromovo) arose in the 4th century BC. e. and became one of the largest in the Chersonesos state. Like many other Black Sea cities, it was forced to repel constant attacks by Scythian tribes that occupied some areas of the steppe Crimea. During the Greco-Scythian conflicts, Kulchuk changed hands several times, but nevertheless remained a major trading point. The Scythians built their own fortification system here - a rampart and a moat lined with stone. The last owners of the settlement in the ancient era were the Scythians - with them in the 1st century AD. e. life in this place died out, as researchers believe, due to drought and the threat from the Sarmatian tribes. In the Middle Ages, when Crimea was under the control of the Khazar Kaganate, a settlement arose again on Kulchuk, now Khazar.

Belyaus

Another settlement founded in the 4th century BC. e. immigrants from Chersonesos. It was a block of five estates, fenced with stone walls, along which outbuildings were located. At the beginning of the 2nd century BC. e. Belyaus was captured by the Scythians, who, as in Kulchuk, built a rampart and a ditch lined with stone. In the second half of the 1st century BC. e. life on Belyaus was dying out - a few inhabitants reappeared in the settlement only in the 3rd century AD. e. During the Great Migration of Peoples (IV-V centuries AD), the Huns stayed in this place, and the last inhabitants of Belyaus were the Khazars.

Kara-Tobe

Defensive tower

The settlement on the western coast of Crimea was, like many others, founded in the 4th century BC. e. and then included in the Chersonesos state. But, unlike other cities, early Greek buildings were practically not preserved here: the surrounding areas were poor in stone, and therefore the buildings that had served their purpose were immediately dismantled in order to erect new structures. At the beginning of the 2nd century BC. e. the settlement fell into the sphere of influence of the Scythians, and Scythian buildings arose on the site of Greek estates. The Scythians were driven out by the troops of Mithridates VI, but after the death of the Pontic king they returned to the Black Sea settlements, including Kara-Tobe. Around 20 AD e. the settlement died in a fire - residents left their homes in a hurry, not even having time to save their utensils. After this, life on Kara-Toba was restored, but never reached its previous level. During the confrontation between the Scythians and Rome, which in the third quarter of the 1st century AD. e. came to the aid of Chersonese, the residents left Kara-Tobe without a fight. At the end of the 1st century AD. e. a small village arose there again, but at the beginning of the 2nd century AD. e. the life of the settlement finally died out.

Chersonese Tauride

The polis was founded in 529 BC by immigrants from Heraclea Pontus and existed for a long time as a Greek colony. Over time, it turned into the capital of the state, to which many Black Sea cities submitted. But the problem was the Scythian tribes, with whom Chersonesus was forced to wage constant wars, which caused enormous harm to its economy. In the end, Chersonesus resorted to the help of the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator - and was eventually absorbed by his power. After the death of Mithridates, Chersonesus became part of the Roman Empire, and in the 5th century AD it submitted to Byzantium. However, despite the consistent dependence on three empires, the city of Chersonesos remained the largest political and cultural center of the Northern Black Sea region until the beginning of the 13th century. With the weakening of Byzantium, Muslim and nomadic tribes became more active in the region, who repeatedly plundered the city, until in 1399 the Golden Horde temnik Edigei completely destroyed Chersonesos.

Panticapaeum

Ruins of the prytaneum, a city council in ancient Greece

The city on the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus, on the site of modern Kerch, was founded in the 7th century BC. e. came from Miletus. In the 540s BC. e. Panticapaeum led a military confederation that gathered the surrounding Greek policies, which found it difficult to resist the nomads attacking them alone. In the 5th century BC. e. The Archeanactid dynasty reigned in Panticapaeum, and then the Spartocid dynasty, which turned the confederation into the Bosporan state, and Panticapaeum into a huge prosperous city (its territory grew to 100 hectares). At the end of the 2nd century BC. e. The Bosporan kingdom lost its former power and submitted to the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator. However, this did not greatly damage Panticapaeum, which now became the capital of another state. Mithridates annexed a huge territory to his kingdom - in addition to the Black Sea region, it included Asia Minor, Colchis and Greater Armenia - but began to be at enmity with Rome. The wars that began were unsuccessful for him - as a result, fleeing from Roman troops, Mithridates took refuge in his own palace in Panticapaeum and, seeing that enemy troops were approaching the city, committed suicide.

History lesson in 5th grade

Topic: Greek colony cities in Crimea.

The purpose of the lesson: to form an idea of ​​the era of the Great Greek colonization, which marked the beginning of the cultural expansion of the Greek world and the interaction of Greeks and barbarians in Crimea.

Tasks: Picture of the world in facts and concepts.

To teach to explain the processes of interaction between the Hellenes and the barbarians of the Crimea, combining various facts and concepts into a holistic picture of the world.

Development of historical thinking.

To teach how to identify cause-and-effect relationships of Greek colonization in Crimea, which are important for the Greeks themselves and their neighbors on the Crimean peninsula.

Cultural, moral and civic-patriotic education.

Learn to give, by explaining, your own assessment of the actions of the Greek colonialists in relation to the local residents of Crimea.

Lesson type: learning new knowledge

During the classes

Organizing time

Motivation

From the 7th century BC e. Greek settlements appear on the Crimean peninsula - colonies. The largest and most famous were the policies of Chersonesos and Panticapaeum. In the VI – V centuries. BC e. The Scythians dominated the steppes. Panticapaeum, or Bosporus (modern city of Kerch), and Kafa (city of Feodosia) were built by colonists from the metropolis city of Miletus.

Exercise. Make up the term - metropolis

Communicating the topic and purpose of the lesson

1. Tavrida, Tavrika, Tavria. Teacher's story

the name of the Crimean Peninsula among the ancient Greeks and Romans after the name of those who lived on its territory from the 1st millennium BC. e. Taurian tribe.

According to one version, this name comes from the ancient Greek word “tauros” - bull.

The name of the peninsula comes from the word "taphros", which means ditch. This refers to the ancient Perekop ditch, which was dug even before the Greeks arrived on the peninsula.

Thus, Taurica is the land behind the ditch, Taurians are those who live behind the ditch.

Exercise. Remember the reasons for Greek colonization. What attracted the Greeks to Crimea?

Exercise. Remember who the barbarians are?

Group 1. Work with handouts in groups. Highlight the main thing, write a story.

The first colonies of the Hellenes (as the ancient Greeks called themselves) were founded in Crimea as a result of the Great Greek colonization - the settlement of the inhabitants of Ancient Greece in the basins of the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

In fact, the Greek colonists were not “venturing into the unknown.” Even before the start of colonization, their ships visited the northern shores of the Black Sea, which they called Pont Aksinsky, that is, “The Inhospitable Sea.” Probably, the Greeks were frightened by the relatively cold climate and the hostility of the local inhabitants - the Tauri and Scythians. However, after a few colonies were founded here, and lively trade began with the local residents, the sea was renamed Pont Euxine, that is "Hospitable Sea"

The first Greek settlers in Crimea were residents of the largest Greek city-state of Miletus. Their attention was attracted by the areas along the shores of the Kerch Strait. Here, on the site of the modern city of Kerch, the Milesians founded a city called Panticapaeum. According to legend, the Scythian king ceded the land for the founding of the city to the Greeks. Most likely, the Scythians were interested in developing trade with the Greeks, and therefore did not interfere with the latter organizing colonies.

Group 2. Work with handouts in groups. Highlight the main thing, write a story.

During the 6th century. BC e. Greek cities emerge on the Kerch Peninsula Tiritaka(south of Kerch near the village of Arshintsevo, on the shores of the Kerchesky Bay), Kitey(on the Kerch Peninsula, 40 kilometers south of Kerch), Cimmerick(on the southern coast of the Kerch Peninsula, on the western slope of Mount Onuk), Mirmekiy(on the Kerch Peninsula, 4 kilometers from the city of Kerch) and others, which subsequently formed Bosporan state.

A number of cities were founded on the opposite shore of the Kerch Strait (Bosporus). From the point of view of the ancient Greeks, this strait separated Europe and Asia, therefore the lands on its eastern shore were called the “Asian Bosporus”. The largest city in the Asian Bosporus was Phanagoria, named after oikist(leader of the settlers) Phanagora.

Emporia- Greek trading posts began to appear on the shores of the Black Sea in the 7th century BC. e., the first of which at the entrance to the Dnieper estuary on the island of Berezan became Borysphenida. Then in the first half of the 6th century BC. e. appeared at the mouth of the Southern Bug (Gipanis) Olvia(“happy”), at the mouth of the Dniester - Tiras, and on the Kerch Peninsula - Panticapaeum(on the site of modern Kerch) and further towards Meganom city Feodosia(on the shore of the Feodosia Bay). Feodosia is the only city in Crimea that has retained its name from antiquity to the present day.

At the end of the 6th century BC. in western Crimea, on the site of modern Evpatoria, there arises Kerkinitida. In the southwest, on the Heraclean Peninsula, the inhabitants of Heraclea Pontus (a city on the southern shore of the Black Sea) and Delos (a city on the island of the same name in the Aegean Sea) founded in the area of ​​modern Sevastopol Chersonese Tauride. The city was built on the site of an already existing settlement and among all the inhabitants of the city - Tauri, Scythians and Dorian Greeks, at first there was even equality, but later the titular Greek nation emerged.

Exercise. Working with a map. Find voiced toponyms on the map

Group 3. Work with handouts in groups. Highlight the main thing, write a story.

By the end of the 5th century BC. e. Greek colonization of Crimea and the shores of the Black Sea was completed. Greek settlements appeared where there was the possibility of regular trade with the local population, which ensured the sale of Attic goods.

From the 5th century BC e. Scythian-Greek connections began to be established and rapidly develop. There were also raids and military campaigns of the Scythians on the Greek Black Sea cities. Scythian attacks may have been one of the reasons why the independent Greek Black Sea cities around 480 BC. e. united in a military alliance.

In the first half of the 5th century BC. e. Panticapaeum united around itself the Greek city-colonies located on both banks of the Cimmerian Bosporus - Kerch Strait. Understanding the need for unification for self-preservation and the implementation of their economic interests, the Greek city policies formed Bosporan Kingdom.

The Bosporan kingdom occupied the entire Kerch Peninsula and Taman to the Sea of ​​Azov and Kuban.

During its heyday as the capital of the Bosporan kingdom, Panticapaeum occupied an area of ​​about 100 hectares. The city had a convenient harbor and was surrounded by a defensive wall already in the 6th century. BC e. The city was located on the slopes and at the foot of Mount Mithridates (modern name). At the top of the mountain there was an acropolis with temples and public buildings.

In Panticapaeum there were large shipyards that also repaired ships. The Bosporan kingdom had a navy consisting of narrow and long fast-moving trireme ships, which had three rows of oars on each side and a powerful and durable ram at the bow. Triremes were usually 36 meters long, 6 meters wide, and the draft depth was about a meter. The crew of such a ship consisted of 200 people - oarsmen, sailors and a small detachment of marines. There were almost no boarding battles then; triremes rammed enemy ships at full speed and sank them. The trireme ram consisted of two or three sharp sword-shaped tips. The ships reached speeds of up to five knots, and with a sail - up to eight knots - approximately 15 kilometers per hour.

The main income came from trade with Greece and other Attic states.

Exercise. What did the Greeks and Bosporans trade?

Group 4. Work with handouts in groups. Highlight the main thing, write a story.

In the 3rd century. n. e. The Bosporan kingdom became the target of attacks by barbarian tribes (Goths, Gelurs, Borans, etc.). The final blow to the kingdom was dealt by the invasion of the Huns, who destroyed it at the end of the 4th century. Bosporan cities and destroyed the Bosporan state.

The most famous political figure of ancient Crimea is the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator (120 - 63 BC). The power of his state was such that it posed a threat even to the all-powerful Roman Empire. Having inherited a small kingdom from his father (located on the southern shore of the Black Sea), he expanded it through conquests and temporarily weakened Roman rule in the eastern provinces of the empire.

IN 107 BC e. Bosporan king Perisad, renounced power in favor of Mithridates. Having gained power over the Bosporan state, the Pontic king further strengthened his power. Chersonesus and the Bosporan kingdom gave him bread and money, and the northeastern barbarians, including the Scythians, replenished his army.

Having ultimately been defeated in the wars with Rome, Mithridates fled to Panticapaeum. Here he prepared for a new campaign against the Romans. But the blockade of the cities of Taurica by the Romans had an unfavorable effect on their position. Uprisings began. The king’s son, Pharnaces, decided to take advantage of this to take the much-coveted throne. IN '63 BC e. Mithridates, abandoned by everyone in his Panticapaeum palace, after unsuccessful attempts to poison himself, ordered a Celtic slave to stab himself with a sword. In memory of this event, Mount Mithridates, dominating Kerch, received its name.

15 years after the death of his father, Pharnaces, who became king of the Bosporus, undertook a successful campaign in the Caucasus, Colchis, then Cappadocia. He decided to restore his father's former kingdom and in 49 BC e. went to Asia Minor to regain the Pontic throne. Pharnaces II achieved significant success, but 2 August 47

BC e. In the battle near the city of Zela, the army of the Pontic king was defeated by the Roman legions of Julius Caesar, who wrote his famous words in a report to the Senate of Rome: "Veni, vidi, vici"- “I came, I saw, I conquered.” Pharnaces again submitted to Rome and was sent back to his Crimean lands, where in an internecine struggle he was killed by the local leader Asander.

Lesson summary

We highlight the main thing and summarize the information

Homework

Repeat the entries in your notebook. Fill out contour map No. 1-4

List of used literature

1. A. R. Andreev. History of Crimea. A brief description of the past of the Crimean peninsula. -Interregional Center for Industry Informatics of Gosatomnadzor of Russia, 1997. -97 pp.

2. ttp://refwin.ru/431664775.html

3. http://www.idemvpohod.com/dostoprimechatelnosty/147-grekivkrimu

History of Crimea March 20, 2014

All the cities you see on this map were founded by the ancient Greeks during the 6th century BC. (with the exception of Kalos Limen, nestled in the far west of the peninsula).

In the first half of the century, the Ionian Greeks mastered the eastern coast of Taurica, and towards its end, colonization of the western and southwestern parts of the peninsula began.

You can’t help but wonder: why did the Greeks do this? Why did they move in huge numbers from the cozy and long-developed Hellas? The process of settlement of Greeks along the shores of the Mediterranean, Black and Azov Seas was called the “Great Greek Colonization”.

And indeed, the word “great” cannot be avoided here. For almost 200 years, the Hellenes persistently explored new spaces, founding hundreds of cities during this time. They were not afraid of dangerous sea crossings, or clashes with the local population, or separation from their usual cultural and linguistic environment.

Colonization was a very difficult matter, but the Greeks had no other choice! Greece, although a picturesque country, is not well suited for life: there is very little arable land there, it is incredibly difficult to cultivate bread, and there is nowhere to expand: all around are mountain peaks and the sea.

Therefore, when by the 8th century BC. The population of Greece reached its maximum size, the question arose - how to avoid overpopulation and the inevitable unrest. A solution was found in the organized resettlement of some citizens to new, undeveloped lands.

Moreover, all the Greeks were able to benefit from what happened: both those who left and those who remained to cultivate meager fields and develop crafts in their homeland. Going in search of new lands, the Hellenes tried to choose places where they could engage in productive farming. First of all, grow bread.

In the newly founded cities, the Greeks reproduced their familiar model of government, established traditional crafts, and established trade exchanges with the local population and with their abandoned homeland - the metropolis. The descendants of the colonists retained ties with the metropolis - not only trade, but also spiritual ones - for centuries.

The Greek people in those days were not homogeneous: they consisted of several tribes that differed in both dialect and character. The most numerous and active were Ionians And Dorians.

Ionians lived mainly along the shores of the Aegean Sea, and early absorbed the wisdom of the Ancient East, which lay nearby. It was they who gave the world famous scientists: Hippocrates, Thales, Euclid and many others.

The largest Ionian city was Miletus, which lay on the eastern shore of Hellas (now its ruins are in Turkey). It was the Milesians who began the development of the eastern coast of Taurica. Panticapaeum, Theodosius, Tiritaka are their colonies.

The Ionians sought to invade new lands peacefully and establish trade relations with the local population. And, if the aborigines are enslaved, it will be gradually. Their weapon in conquering new spaces was often not a sword, but an IOU, not a warship, but a merchant ship.

The Ionians were cheerful and cheerful people. They saw the world as bright and beautiful and, therefore, especially many poets, artists and outstanding architects were born among them. The favorite god of the Ionians was the radiant Apollo, the patron of the muses.

Dorians were very different from the Ionians. Suffice it to say that the most powerful state of the Dorians was Sparta - a city where the cult of military discipline, brute force, pressure and submission reigned. Even the Dorians themselves did not approve of the brutal practices of the Spartans, but they still adopted some things.

The stern thunderer Zeus was a particularly revered god among the Dorians, and they revered the warlike Hercules as their ancestor. “Nature is not a temple, but a workshop,” a Dorian would readily subscribe to these words.

The Dorians did not so much admire the world around them as adapt it to their own needs, sometimes showing miracles of will, endurance and strength.

So, Chersonese Tauride was founded by the Dorians - a decisive, disciplined and stern people. Unlike the Ionians, they did not just explore new lands. They conquered them.

Panticalei Khankai(Greek Παντικάπαιον) founded on the site of modern Kerch by immigrants from Miletus at the end of the 7th century BC. e., in its heyday it occupied about 100 hectares. The Acropolis was located on a mountain called today Mithridates. The main patron deity of Panticapaeum from the founding of the settlement was Apollo, and it was to him that the main temple of the acropolis was dedicated. The construction of the oldest and most grandiose building, by the standards of the Northern Black Sea region, of the Temple of Apollo Ietra was completed by the end of the 6th century. BC e. In addition, later, next to the palace of the Spartokids, there was a temple in honor of Aphrodite and Dionysus. Over time, the entire city was surrounded by a powerful system of stone fortifications, superior to that of Athens. In the vicinity of the city there was a necropolis, which differed from the necropolises of other Hellenic cities. In addition to the usual ground burials for Hellenes at that time, the necropolis of Panticapaeum consisted of long chains of mounds stretching along the roads from the city to the steppe. On the southern side, the city is bordered by the most significant ridge of mounds, today called Yuz-Oba - a hundred hills. Buried under their mounds were representatives of the barbarian nobility - the Scythian leaders who exercised military-political protectorate over the city. The mounds still constitute one of the most striking attractions in the vicinity of Kerch. The most popular of them are Kul-Oba, Melek-Chesmensky, Zolotoy and especially the famous Tsarsky.
The history of Panticapaeum as a city began at the end of the 7th century BC. e., when on the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait) ancient Greek colonists founded a number of independent city-states (polises) that formed in the 40s. VI century BC e. military confederation. The goal of the intercity union was to confront the indigenous population - the Scythians. Panticapaeum was the largest, most powerful and probably the first. This is indicated by the fact that already from the late 40s. VI century BC e. Panticapaeum minted its own silver coin, and from the last third of the 70s. IV century BC e. - and gold.
City of Feodosia was founded by Greek colonists from Miletus in the 6th century BC. e. The ancient name of the city was Kaffa, mentioned during the time of Emperor Diocletian (284-305).
From 355 BC. e. Kaffa was supposedly part of the Bosporan kingdom. According to some estimates, ancient Kaffa was the second most important city in the European part of the Bosporan kingdom with a population of 6-8 thousand people. Economic prosperity was the reason for the outbreak of war between Feodosia and Bosporus. In 380 BC. e. The troops of King Leukon I annexed Feodosia to the Bosporan kingdom. As part of the ancient Bosporus, Feodosia was the largest trading port in the Northern Black Sea region. Trade ships with grain departed from here. The fortified center of Feodosia - the acropolis - was located on Quarantine Hill.
The city was destroyed by the Huns in the 4th century AD. e.
Chersonese Tauride, or simply Chersonesus (ancient Greek Χερσόνησος - ἡ χερσόνησος) is a polis founded by the ancient Greeks on the Heraclean Peninsula on the southwestern coast of Crimea. Nowadays the Khersones settlement is located on the territory of the Gagarinsky district of Sevastopol. For two thousand years, Chersonesus was a major political, economic and cultural center of the Northern Black Sea region, where it was the only Dorian colony. Chersonesos was a Greek colony founded in 529/528. BC e. came from Heraclea Pontus, located on the Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea. It is located in the southwestern part of Crimea, near the bay, which is currently called Karantinnaya. In the earliest layers of Chersonesus, archaeologists found a significant number of shards (fragments) of archaic black-figure ceramics, which date back no later than the 6th century BC. e.
A little over a hundred years after the founding of Chersonese, its territory already occupied the entire space of the peninsula lying between the Karantinnaya and Pesochnaya bays (translated from Greek “Chersonese” means peninsula, and the Hellenes called the southern coast of Crimea Tavrika (the country of the Taurians).

10. Socio-political life and government structure of Chersonesos.
State authority
The bulk of the free population of Chersonesos were Greeks, and the Greeks were Dorians. This is indicated by epigraphic monuments, which, until the first centuries of our era, were written in the Doric dialect. The characteristic features of the latter is the use of: α instead of y, for example in the words δάμος-δ-^ιος, βουλά, -βοολή, Χερσόνασος instead of Χερσόνησος, etc.
But, along with the Greeks, Tauris and Scythians lived in Chersonesos. Scythian names are found on amphora handles and in epigraphic monuments (ΙΡΕ I 2, 343). One of the Chersonese ambassadors in Delphi, who received proxy there, has the patronymic Σκοθα;. The same person is apparently named in the act of sale of land (ΙΡΕ I 2, 403). Thus, some people from the native population not only lived in Chersonesos, but also enjoyed civil rights there. It is difficult to say whether this was an exception or, on the contrary, a mass phenomenon. In any case, there is no doubt that Chersonesus was closely connected with the local population, and did not stand isolated from it.
The ruling class in Chersonesos were slave owners: landowners, workshop owners, traders, as well as small peasants and artisans. The oppressed and exploited class were the slaves who came from the native population; “Slave owners and slaves are the first major division into classes.” 1 In addition, the Scythian population, who lived on the territory belonging to Chersonesos, was dependent on Chersonese. The revolt of the Scythians under the leadership Savmaka is convincing evidence that the Scythians were exploited by the Greeks.
During the period under review, there was a democratic republic in Chersonesos. The forms of government bodies and the general nature of the state structure of Chersonesos have much in common with the state structure of Heraclea and its metropolis - Megara. 1 The main source for studying the state structure of Chersonesos are epigraphic monuments - inscriptions on marble slabs. Valuable documents are inscriptions issued on behalf of the state: honorary decrees, proxies, treaties, acts, etc. One of the most important monuments of Chersonesus is the oath dating back to the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd century. BC e. (IPE I 2, 401). Until now, it was generally accepted that the oath represented an oath that was taken by young men who had reached the age of majority - ephebes, who then received the rights of citizenship, that the oath listed all the duties that every citizen had to observe. 2 Academician S. A. Zhebelev 3 believes that all citizens of the state had to take the oath after the attempt to overthrow democracy was eliminated. This new understanding of the text of the oath gives us the opportunity to learn about the class struggle that took place in Hersemes in a fairly early period, which makes the oath an even more valuable monument.
Political life
Despite the fact that the political system of Chersonesus was called “democracy”, the leading role in the political life of the city is gradually passing into the hands of representatives of the most prosperous part of the population. Participation in public administration was not paid and therefore was practically inaccessible to those who lived only from the results of their labor. As follows from the honorary decrees and dedicatory inscriptions of Chersonese, actual power in the state gradually passes to several families, and the Chersonese democracy, as in Olbia, becomes a democracy only for a small circle of wealthy citizens.
Political life in the ancient city was always closely connected with religious life. Temples stood out in the architectural decoration of the city. Unfortunately, as a result of subsequent reconstructions and redevelopment of the city area, all the ancient temples were destroyed and were not preserved. However, we know from honorary inscriptions that there were several temples in the city. The main shrine of Chersonesos from the 4th century BC. e. became a sanctuary of the Virgin with a temple and a statue of this deity. In general, the religious life of the city at that time was rich and varied. At the head of the official pantheon, judging by the oath of citizens, were Zeus, Gaia, Helios and Virgo. In addition to the temple in the city near Chersonesus, on Cape Feolent or on the Mayachny Peninsula, there was another temple of the Virgin. In this temple, according to ancient Greek legends, the priestess was Iphigenia, the daughter of the leader of the Trojan campaign of the Greeks, Agamemnon, who was sacrificed by him. There was a temple to the Virgin in Chersonesos itself.

11.Bosporan kingdom. Government structure and socio-economic life. Uprising of Savmak
Bosporan Kingdom (or Bosporus, Vosporan kingdom (N. M. Karamzin), Vosporan tyranny) - an ancient state in the Northern Black Sea region on the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait). The capital is Panticapaeum. Formed around 480 BC. e. as a result of the unification of Greek cities on the Kerch and Taman peninsulas, as well as the entry of Sindiki. Later it was expanded along the eastern shore of Meotida (Sea of ​​Azov) to the mouth of the Tanais (Don). From the end of the 2nd century BC. e. as part of the Pontic kingdom. From the end of the 1st century. BC e. post-Hellenistic state dependent on Rome. Became part of Byzantium in the 1st half. VI century Known from Greco-Roman historians. After the middle of the 7th century BC, Greek settlers appeared on the northern shore of the Black Sea, and by the beginning of the second quarter of the 6th century BC. e. develop a significant part of the coast, with the exception of the southern coast of Crimea. The first colony in this area was the Taganrog settlement, founded in the second half of the 7th century BC, located in the area of ​​​​modern Taganrog. Most likely, the colonies were founded as apoikia - independent policies (free civil groups ). Greek colonies were founded in the area of ​​the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait), where there was no permanent local population. There was a permanent population in the Crimean Mountains, where the Taurian tribes lived, Scythians periodically roamed the steppes, and semi-nomadic Meotians and Sindian farmers lived around the Kuban River. At first, the colonies did not experience pressure from the barbarians, their population was very small, and the settlements had no defensive walls. Around the middle of the 6th century. BC e. Fires were recorded at some small monuments, including Myrmekia, Porthmia and Thorik, after which small fortified acropolises appeared on the first two of them. Conveniently located, possessing a good trading harbor and therefore having reached a significant level of development, Panticapaeum, presumably, became the center around which the Greek cities of both banks of the Kerch Strait united into an inter-city union. Currently, an opinion has emerged that initially he managed to unite only nearby small towns around himself, and on the other side of the strait, the center founded in the 3rd quarter became the center. VI century BC e. Phanagoria. Around 510 BC e. The temple of Apollo of the Ionic order was built in Panticapaeum. Apparently, on behalf of the sacred union of cities that arose around the temple, a coin with the legend “ΑΠΟΛ” was issued. Whether this union was equal to a political one, how it was organized, who was part of it is unknown. There is a hypothesis linking the issue of these coins with Phanagoria.

Socio-economic life
The population of large territories of the Bosporan kingdom was at different stages of socio-economic development and social relations. The slave-owning mode of production reigned here, and therefore society was divided into free and bonded people. The ruling elite included the royal family and its entourage, officials of the central and local government apparatus, shipowners, slave traders, owners of land plots, craft workshops, wealthy merchants, representatives of the tribal and military nobility, and priests. The owners and managers of the land were Bosporan rulers and large landowners. There was state and private ownership of land. The Bosporan state was inhabited by free citizens of average income who did not have slaves, foreigners, as well as free communal peasants (Pelata). The latter were the main payers of taxes in kind for the right to use land and primarily bore the burden of duties in favor of the state and the local aristocracy. In addition, peasants were obliged to participate in the militia during the attack of nomadic tribes on the Bosporan kingdom. The low level of the social ladder was traditionally occupied by slaves, divided into private and state. The work of state slaves was mainly used in the construction of public buildings and defensive structures. In tribal organizations, slavery was domestic, patriarchal. Local aristocrats widely used slave labor on agricultural farms, where they mainly grew bread for sale.

State structure
According to the historical type, the Bosporan kingdom was a slave state, like the city-states that were part of it. In terms of the form of government, it was one of the varieties of despotic monarchy. From the beginning of its formation, the Bosporan kingdom was an aristocratic republic, headed from 483 BC. stood the clan of Archenaktidiv. From the middle of the 5th century. (438 BC) power passed to the Spartokid dynasty, which ruled here for three centuries. The Spartokids for a long time styled themselves archons of the Bosporus and Feodosia, and called themselves kings after the vassal barbarian peoples. Already from the III Art. BC. The double title disappears, the rulers call themselves kings (the Bosporan kings retained the title of archons in the 1st century BC only in relation to Panticapaeum).

The city-states that became part of the Bosporan kingdom had a certain autonomy and their own bodies of self-government (people's assemblies, city councils, elected positions). But already on the verge of a new era, the Bosporan kings became sole rulers, owners who called themselves “kings of kings” (with the accession of new tribes to the state, the title of head of state - king - was added to their ethnic name). In the 1st-3rd centuries AD. In the Bosporus, the tendency towards centralization of power intensified, accompanied by the formation of a complex state-bureaucratic structure with the tsarist administration at its head.

Savmak uprising
Scythian uprising in the Bosporus state in 107 BC. e. It flared up in Panticapaeum during negotiations with Diophantus on the transfer of power from the Bosporan king Perisad V to the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator (See Mithridates VI Eupator). Perisad was killed by Savmak, and Diophantus fled to Chersonesus. The rebels took possession of the entire European part of the Bosporus. In the N. century. The Scythian population, consisting of dependent peasants, artisans, and slaves, participated. S.v. prevented the implementation of a political deal, with the help of which the slave-owning elite of the Bosporus, trying to find a way out of the acute crisis and maintain their class dominance, tried to establish a regime of firm power, transferring it into the hands of Mithridates VI. The rebel leader Savmak became the ruler of Bosporus. The system established during the reign of Savmak, which lasted about a year, is unknown. After lengthy preparation, Mithridates VI sent a large punitive expedition of Diophantus to Sinope. In Crimea, Chersonesus detachments were included in it. Diophantus' troops took Feodosia, crossed the Kerch Peninsula and captured Panticapaeum. S.v. was suppressed, Savmak was captured, and the Bosporan state came under the rule of Mithridates VI.

Slavs in Crimea.

The Slavs appeared in Crimea in the first centuries of our era. Some historians associate their appearance on the peninsula with the so-called great migration of peoples of the 3rd-8th centuries. n. e. The most expressive traces of Slavic culture identified by archaeologists date back to the times of Kievan Rus. For example, during excavations on Tepsel Hill (near the current urban-type settlement of Planerskoye), it was discovered that Slavic settlements existed there for a long time, arose in the 12th-13th centuries. The temple opened on the hill is close in plan to the temples of Kievan Rus, and the oven excavated in one of the dwellings is reminiscent of ancient Russian ones. The same can be said about the ceramics found during excavations. The remains of ancient Russian churches have been identified in various regions of the peninsula, most of them are located in eastern Crimea. Fresco paintings and plaster, judging by the fragments found in these ruins, are close to similar material from Kyiv cathedrals of the 11th-12th centuries.
Written sources indicate that Crimea was still at the beginning of the 9th century. falls into the sphere of influence of the ancient Russian princes. For example, the life of Stephen of Sourozh says that in the first quarter of the 9th century. Russian prince Bravlin attacked Crimea, captured Kherson, Kerch and Sudak (some historians consider this episode semi-legendary).
In the middle of the 11th century. The ancient Rus begin to settle in the Azov region, take possession of the Greek city of Tamatarcha, and the later Tmutarakan - the capital of the future ancient Russian principality. Sources give reason to believe that by the middle of the 10th century. the power of the Kyiv princes extended to part of the lands in the Crimea and, above all, to the Kerch Peninsula.
In 944, the Kiev prince Igor installed his governor in the Crimea, near the Kerch Strait, displacing the Khazars from there. It is difficult to accurately establish the boundaries of ownership of Russian lands in Crimea during this period. But the increased influence of the Rus in Crimea is evidenced by the text of the agreement concluded by Igor with Byzantium after the unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople in 945: “And about the Korsun country: there are so many cities in that part, but the princes of Rus do not have power... and that the country does not submit to you,” that is, to the prince of Kyiv. With this treaty, Vazantium sought to limit the influence of the Russian princes in Crimea, taking advantage of the defeat of the Rus in 945. With the same treaty, the Kiev prince pledged to defend the Korsun land from the Black Bulgarians, which was possible only if Igor retained a certain territory in the eastern part of the Crimea or on Taman, where at that time the future Tmutarakan principality was taking shape.
Igor's son Svyatoslav managed to strengthen the influence of the Kyiv princes in Crimea, especially in the period 962-971. Only Svyatoslav’s unsuccessful campaign in Bulgaria forced him to promise the Byzantine emperor not to claim “neither the power of Korsun, and as many of their cities as possible, nor the country of Bulgaria.” But this was a temporary retreat of Rus' in Crimea. Svyatoslav's son Vladimir carried out a campaign against Korsun in 988 and captured the city.
Byzantium had to sign an agreement with the Kyiv prince, which recognized his possessions in the Crimea and the Azov region. Thanks to this agreement, Kievan Rus gained access to the Black Sea and strengthened the Tmutarakan principality, which was dependent on it. After the Korsun campaign, the city of Bosporus and its district were annexed to this principality, which received the Russian name Korchev (from the word “korcha” - forge, present-day Kerch).
Throughout the XI century. The Tmutarakan principality, including its lands on the Crimean Peninsula, belonged to Ancient Rus'. At the end of the 11th century. mentions of Tmutarakan disappear from the chronicle, but, obviously, even before the middle of the 12th century. The Kerch Peninsula and Taman were Russian. In the second half of the 12th century. The Tmutarakan principality fell under the blows of the Polovtsians, who roamed the Northern Black Sea region.
A number of written sources indicate that the lands on the Kerch Peninsula belonged to the Kyiv princes. Idrisi called the Kerch Strait “the mouth of the Russian River” and even knew a city in this region with the name “Russia” (We can assume that this is the Russian Korchev, which, according to a Byzantine source in 1169, was called “Russia” for some time). On medieval European and Asian maps of Crimea, many names of cities were preserved, indicating the long and long stay of the Rus on the peninsula: “Cosal di Rossia”, “Russia”, “Rossofar”, “Rosso”, “Rosika” (near Evpatoria), etc.
The Polovtsian and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion cut off Crimea from Kievan Rus for a long time.

13. Principality of Tmutarakan. Political structure, socio-economic life.
There are still many gaps in the history of the ancient Russian semi-enclave on the shores of the Kerch Strait - the Tmutarakan Principality. For example, the first mention of it in Russian chronicles appears in 988, when the Kiev prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich sent his young son Mstislav to reign in Tmutarakan, but the circumstances under which these lands came into the possession of the Kyiv princes, and the time when this happened, remain a subject of debate among modern historians. It is not known for certain who owned these lands before the arrival of the Russians. We do not know the exact boundaries of the Tmutarakan land and the time when Tmutarakan ceased to be a Russian principality.
According to one version, the Tmutarakan table was captured by Svyatoslav during a campaign against the Khazars back in 965-966. According to another, these lands, during the seizure by the Kyiv prince Vladimir Korsuni (medieval Kherson, modern Sevastopol), were granted by the Byzantines to the Russian prince for the obligation to protect the Crimean possessions of the empire from raids by nomads.
A lot of reliable information about the Tmutarakan principality has been preserved. It is safe to say that its territory included the Kerch Peninsula with the city of Korchev (Greek Bosporus, modern Kerch) and the Taman Peninsula, where the capital of the principality was the city of Tmutarakan (Greek Tamatarkha, Matrakha, modern village of Taman). Probably, the Tmutarakan principality also owned some sections of the coast of the Eastern Azov region, where rich fisheries had long been located.
Residents of the coasts of the Kerch Strait were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, and caught fish, which abounded in the waters of the Azov and Black Seas. Crafts flourished in the cities, primarily pottery production. But the most important occupation of the inhabitants of the principality, located at the intersection of trade routes, was trade, which brought great income to the townspeople and the state.
The population of the principality was motley. Many Greeks lived here, settled in the cities and villages of Turkic nomads, including the Khazars, Jewish merchants and artisans, as well as immigrants from the Caucasus, primarily the Zikhs and Alans. Over time, a noticeable Slavic layer appeared, represented by princely people, warriors, merchants, artisans and clergy.
The city of Tmutarakan was the seat of the head of the Zikh diocese, which reported directly to the Patriarch of Constantinople. Lead seals of Archbishop Anthony, who headed the diocese in the middle of the 11th century, are known.
Prince Mstislav was a very energetic ruler. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, in 1022 he set out on a campaign against the Kasogs. They came out to meet him. They were led by Prince Rededya. Both princes had a strong build and were distinguished by their strength, so they agreed to resolve the dispute by combat, so as not to destroy my people. According to the customs of that time, they fought without weapons, and only the winner had the right to kill the vanquished. The victory went to Mstislav. According to the agreement, the Tmutarakan prince received land, power over the Kasogs, property and the family of the vanquished.
The very next year, Mstislav, relying on his squad, the Kasogs and Khazars (inhabitants of the principality) subordinate to him, opposed his brother Yaroslav and fought for the Kiev throne. Having defeated Yaroslav, he received half of Rus' with the capital in Chernigov. Soon Mstislav leaves Tmutarakan, which is now controlled by his proxies.
Later, Prince Gleb ruled here, famous for measuring the distance from Tmutarakan to Korchev along the ice in 1068 and immortalizing this event with an inscription on the famous Tmutarakan stone, found in Taman at the end of the 18th century. For some time, Rostislav Vsevolodovich reigned here, hiding from the Kyiv government. He was poisoned by the Greeks at the instigation of Grand Duke Svyatoslav. Here and later, rogue princes more than once found refuge.
The most famous Tmutarakan prince was Oleg Svyatoslavich (baptized Mikhail). He first arrived in Tmutarakan in 1078 and, like Rostislav, hid here from his enemies. Having been defeated in the struggle for the reign of Chernigov, he was betrayed by the Polovtsians, captured by the “Kozars” in Tmutarakan and handed over to the Byzantines. His fate was determined by the change of power in Constantinople. Under the patronage of the new emperor of Byzantium, a lead seal with the image of the same archangel and the Greek inscription was preserved: “Lord help Michael, archon of Matrakha, Zikhia and all Khazaria.” An active and successful politician, Oleg has reigned in Tmutarakan for eleven years, but closely follows the events in Kyiv, dreaming of taking the Chernigov throne. And after the death in 1093 of the last of the Yaroslavichs - Vsevolod, realizing that the new Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh was still weak, in 1094 with his allies - the Polovtsian khans, he realized his dream - he established himself in Chernigov. After this event, Tmutarakan is no longer mentioned in chronicles as a Russian possession.
The history of the Russian church is also closely connected with Tmutarakan. In addition to the church built by Mstislav in the name of the Mother of God, in gratitude for the victory over Rededya granted by the Virgin Mary, a Russian monastery was founded here near the city.
Its founder was the monk Nikon, known as one of the first Russian chroniclers and spiritual pillars of Rus' at that time, an associate of St. Theodosius of Pechersk. Nikon's influence on the spiritual and cultural life of Kievan Rus cannot be overestimated. Nikon lived for a long time in Tmutarakan and sometimes carried out diplomatic assignments for the townspeople. It was probably here that he began to create a new chronicle, which he completed in Kyiv.
After the end of the Old Russian reign in Tmutarakan, Russian people continued to live in Taman for a long time, and the Russian language was used here even in the middle of the 13th century.

Great Greek Colonization

Since we have already looked beyond the walls of Olbia, we should talk in more detail about the Greek colonies in the Northern Black Sea region, about their birth and fate.

They arose in the process of colonization that stretched over several centuries, when thousands and thousands of families, with belongings and livestock, loaded onto fragile ships (what else can you call the ships restless among the sea shafts, which often did not even have a deck) and went there, where Odysseus never went. To foreign lands - to make them yours and transform them beyond recognition.

The colonization of the Black Sea coast was part of the second wave of mass Greek emigration. The first occurred during the “Dark Ages” that followed the “Dorian invasion”: in the 12th century. BC e. The city-states of Mycenaean Greece, the heir to the great civilization of Crete, were invaded from the north by Greek tribes of cattle breeders, primarily Dorians. The tribes are backward, but warlike and much more determined (in these times, according to many historians, there was some kind of climate change that had an adverse effect primarily on the cattle breeding economy. Probably, such historical cataclysms as the Trojan War were also associated with it. war, the death of the Hittite kingdom, the attack on Egypt by the “peoples of the sea”).

Contemporaries also called the invasion of the Dorians “the return of the Heraclides”: the Dorians themselves considered themselves direct descendants of Hercules (he would have had enough strength), called upon to avenge the insults once inflicted on the divine hero. You don’t have to go into the essence of the accusations, because it’s clear: “It’s your fault that I want to eat” - and it seems like I really really wanted to eat.

Many then had to escape murder, robbery, destruction, enslavement (the Spartan helot slaves were none other than the descendants of Homer’s Achaeans, who, led by their legendary king Agamemnon, were at the forefront of the Hellenic campaign against Troy).

During those “dark ages,” representatives of all Greek nationalities went overseas, including the victorious Dorians. Colonies arose in Sicily and southern Italy (these lands were called Magna Graecia), on the islands of the Aegean, Adriatic, and Tyrrhenian seas, on the coasts of Asia Minor, Thrace, and North Africa.

The Ionians were the most active in colonizing distant lands (among those who remained, Athens was the strongest city). In Asia Minor they colonized a large part of the Aegean coast, which was called Ionia, and the union of cities they founded there was called the Ionian League. The most significant city-state was Miletus.

The second, or Great, colonization was associated both with the economic rise of Greek cities and the accompanying overpopulation, and with the fierce class struggle within the city-states. At that time, the so-called “Hoplite revolution”: the basis of the armies of city-states became not horsemen, large landowners-aristocrats, but representatives of the “middle bourgeoisie” - peasant landowners not associated with the aristocracy, merchants and wealthy, at least not poor, artisans. They formed the ranks of the heavy Greek infantry - hoplites. The same ones as in the pictures: with a large round painted shield and a massive spear, in a comb helmet (sometimes closed - fear takes over), with a short sword on the side, in a shell or cuirass, in bracers and greaves. Having strained themselves, they provided themselves with all these weapons, mastered the tactics of a dense formation - phalanxes, on the battlefield they could skillfully resist cavalry attacks - and they wanted to be at the head of their policies. And the aristocrats did not want to give up their power.

The struggle between the aristocratic and democratic parties could take the most fierce forms. Thousands sometimes died in armed battles and subsequent reprisals. It cannot be said that one of the two forces prevailed throughout the entire Greek world. But still, the Dorian city-states were considered prone to aristocratic rule, the Ionian ones - to democratic rule.

The colonies became independent policies. Not always completely independent - in some cases the new formation had to follow the instructions of the metropolis. She could also act as an arbitrator in complex litigation. But the colonists themselves, for the most part, did not want to lose ties with their hometown. There remained sanctuaries revered from childhood (their fire, statues of gods and relics were always taken with them), ties of kinship and friendship, ties of memories, and finally.

It was also important that aristocrats and rich people provided funds for the founding of colonies. They remained in place, but it was necessary to fulfill their conditions (for example, to sell their goods in a new place among the native population or to supply them, first of all, with what that land was rich in. Birth somewhere in the 7th century BC. "yellow devil" - hard coin contributed to the fact that commercial interests became all-encompassing and all-pervasive).

They always hoped for help from the metropolis: it could be needed both when settling in a new place, and for defense against the natives - and they were rarely happy with new neighbors. In difficult circumstances, help was also expected from other colonies of their mother country. However, we repeat, most of the colonies were completely independent. And many became metropolises themselves, establishing their own colonies in even more distant lands.

Those who were driven by need, and those who found themselves in the camp of the losers in the political struggle and did not want to remain under the rule of the victors (especially since often the only alternative to leaving was death), and those who harbored the ambitious hope of getting ahead or getting rich joined the ships. in a new place.

But before setting off, it was imperative to enlist divine support. Apollo was considered the main patron of the settlers. It was highly desirable to receive a favorable prediction from the priestess-soothsayer (Pythia) in his temple at Delphi. The Delphic Temple of Apollo became both the spiritual and economic center of colonization. Having extensive information concerning the entire then-Ecumene, the temple could give a competent recommendation and could help with money. The servants of the Delphic Temple knew well what specific colonists wanted first of all: to engage in agriculture, or to create a craft center, so that, by providing local residents, primarily the local nobility, with the fruits of Hellenic craftsmanship, they would receive the fruits of their land for them, or to focus on trade .

Landing after a dangerous voyage, the colonists clearly felt the sacred significance of what was happening - here their new life would begin, here they would find new gods - the patrons of their polis, and here they would erect altars to the old gods. Priests often accompanied the sacred fire from their homeland - they served a solemn prayer service. The leader of the expedition was an oikist, if he became the first head of a new state entity (there were also full-time “expeditioners” - their duty was only to ensure the sea passage and the initial arrangement), after death he was proclaimed a hero - a status, if not divine, then reminiscent of Christian saints: on his a chapel was erected at the grave - a heroon, he was worshiped, through him one could turn to the gods, and protection was expected from him.

Life in a new place was not necessarily organized according to the model of the metropolis - roughly speaking, in an aristocratic or democratic manner. Many did not then embark on a long journey to sail to the same thing. But, on the other hand, it was difficult for newcomers from cities with aristocratic rule, who had no experience of self-government of a democratic polis, to do without unity of command, without a firm hand. Whereas people from democratically oriented cities, if they were not fugitive aristocrats, carried within themselves a deep-rooted rejection of the arrogant nobility. Although they might also have been familiar with the experience of tyranny: de facto autocracy “on behalf of the people,” while maintaining the appearance of a democratic structure (by the way, tyrannies often provided a fairly prosperous life for the majority of the population of the polis, being a way out of the impasse of political confrontation, and this word did not at all carry that sinister meaning that was filled with it later).

Life will show them how to live, the Greeks are smart people. What there hasn’t been room for yet is oligarchy, the dominance of politicking moneybags. There simply could not be such people among the arrivals, and if they were destined to appear, they had to be raised in their own environment.

We have already talked a little about relationships with the local population and will continue to talk. Note that it is unlikely that there were frequent cases when colonists landed on the shore, as on the Cook Islands - in the habitat of unknown savages. Usually, emporia – trading posts – had already been operating on these shores for some time, and the colonists had at least an approximate idea of ​​who they would be dealing with. But this point should also be noted. It is known that the Greeks, with a sense of their own superiority, called all foreigners barbarians. Probably, this word appeared precisely in the process of colonization - as a mockery of the incomprehensible (or poorly understood) speech of the wild natives, some kind of continuous “bar-bar”, in Russian speaking, gibberish. Their manners, their villages, their way of life seemed rude.

Of course, they themselves are a completely different matter. They already picture temples with columns of a strict style, public buildings to match them, a stadium, a theater, a gymnasium, and statues decorating squares. Their dishes will not be like those of the barbarians, but will be made of black-figure (later red-figure) varnish - amphoras, craters, kylixes. And they didn’t expect anyone to give them all this. They themselves built temples, theaters, and beautiful cities. They made money from works of the highest Hellenic craftsmanship, inaccessible to them - and bought them. They did not skimp on bringing in statues that had come out of the hand of the best sculptors. Admire how many works of world-famous potters and vase painters from Attica and Corinth found in the Northern Black Sea region are stored in the Hermitage, the Pushkin Museum, and other exhibitions?

Moreover, in Crimea, on the Taman Peninsula, on the Black Sea estuaries, local Greek craftsmen developed their own unique style. Their sculpture, “Scythian” vases and jewelry, and other works - albeit sometimes lapidary (somewhat rustic) - breathe (especially when there are many of them together, as in the Hermitage) with some kind of intimate, inexplicable, romantic spirit. “The inexplicable” is the basis of Hellenic art, for everything (besides mastery) comes from inspiration, from contact with the divine, from Plato’s eidos (even if Plato was not yet born). And if, moreover, it was born among another inexplicable - a mysterious and formidable barbarian world, pristine vast expanses?

The colonization of the Black Sea region was primarily carried out by the Asia Minor Miletus - itself once, during the first colonization, a Mycenaean colony. In total, the Milesians founded about a hundred city-states along the Black Sea (counting colonies of colonies). “For a long time, the Black Sea and its approaches turned into a Milesian reserve” (Michael Grant).

Miletus was a beautiful and rich city, the “Pearl of Ionia,” as Herodotus called it. At its best, it had about 50 thousand inhabitants (the same number as the capital of the Persian Empire, Persepolis. The Athenians in their hometown during its heyday numbered about 155 thousand, but it was one of the largest cities in the world at that time). The city lived largely from maritime trade, and its interests extended all the way to Egypt. The withdrawal of the colonies was of great importance for commerce: they became a kind of trading posts of Miletus. Business people provided future colonists with ships for the move and supplies for the first time. Therefore, those wishing to move flocked here from all over Greece. The Milesians themselves were spurred to change places, perhaps not so much by economic considerations as by continuous political strife.

The aristocratic rule that had been established since the founding of the city soon showed a tendency to degenerate into an oligarchy. And oligarchy, according to Aristotle’s definition, is a product of the decomposition of the aristocracy. Natural aristocrats considered governing the state not only their sacred right, but also their sacred duty, and looked at it as serving their native city. The oligarchy arose when the interests of these rulers were closely intertwined with the interests of the rich from other strata, primarily the merchants, and then the interests of the people ceased to be, as before, to some extent an end in themselves, they only became a limiter: “as long as they don’t make a fuss.” " This inevitably led to the strengthening of democratic tendencies (democracies have their own path of degeneration into oligarchy, but this path is not Milesian).

Over time, the city was divided: the oligarchs and their supporters (including people dependent and hangers-on) were led by the Party of the Eternal Sailors, or the Party of Wealth. They were opposed by the Fist Party, or the Party of Labor.

History has brought us tales of the wild excesses of this struggle. Having once gained the upper hand, the Trudoviks trampled the children of their opponents with bulls in front of their fathers. And they, taking revenge, burned alive both the children of the vanquished and themselves. Eventually a shaky compromise was established under a moderate oligarchy, but still many Milesians took to the gangplanks in the hope of finding a quieter life in distant, wild Scythia (or in the less distant and wild Thrace and Colchis) rather than in their prosperous city.

The Greeks, I think, called the Black Sea Pontus Euxine - “Hospitable” - for complacency. At first they called it closer to the truth - Pont Aksinsky, i.e. “Inhospitable”. It was risky to cross it directly, so they preferred to sail along the banks. Along the coast, from the Bosphorus and further clockwise, Milesian colonies arose one after another. It was easier with the southern (Asia Minor) coast; it was developed first - Sinope (present-day Turkish Sinop), which headed the union of coastal cities, became the stronghold here.

On the western coast, the Milesians founded Apollonia, then Odessa (the well-known Odessa was named so on the assumption that the ancient city was somewhere nearby, but then it was excavated not far from the Bulgarian Varna), Toms, the already mentioned Istria (the mother of the ill-fated king Skyla was from there). ).

Then it was the turn of the Northern Black Sea region. The first (in 643 BC) was a small (one kilometer by half kilometer) island, now called Berezan (perhaps it appears as Buyan Island in “The Tale of Tsar Saltan”). The Greeks took up farming and crafts here, but mainly trade. They soon expanded their activities and moved to the mainland. Here at the very beginning of the 6th century. BC e. at the mouth of the Southern Bug, on the shore of the estuary, a city with a glorious future arose, Olbia (in which King Skil committed his Dionysian fall from grace). Other colonies are appearing around, relying on the help of existing ones. Cities are surrounded by hora - agricultural lands of colonists who permanently reside outside the city walls. At a distance, permanent settlements arise - if conditions permit, primarily relations with the local population.

Another center of colonization was the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait). Here, on its Crimean shore, in the middle of the 6th century. BC e., on the site of a previously established trading post (emporia), Panticapaeum (translated from ancient Iranian as “Fish Route”, the modern name of Kerch) is being rebuilt. Panticapaeum became the largest city in Eastern Crimea and Taman, primarily due to its convenient trading harbor (in the Kerch Bay). Myrmekiy, Nymphaeum, Theodosia appeared next to it, and on the opposite bank of the Bosporus - Phanagoria, Kepi, Hermonassa, Gorgippia (now Anapa). Further along the Caucasian coast of the Black Sea are Pitiunt (Pitsunda), Dioskuria (Sukhumi), Fasis (Poti).

This is how, having encircled the sea, the Milesians turned the Pont Euxine into “their reserve.” On the northern coast, of the large cities, only the Crimean Chersonesus (the ruins of which are near Sevastopol) was founded not by them, but by the Dorians from Heraclea (the colony of Megara on the southern coast of the Black Sea) and from the island of Delos.

The first close contacts of the Greeks with the inhabitants of the Northern Black Sea region occurred before their appearance in this region, and in places quite remote from it. This happened during the above-described campaigns of the Cimmerians and Scythians in the countries of Western Asia.

In the last quarter of the 7th century. BC e., after the Lydian king Gyges died in battle with them, and his country was destroyed, the Cimmerians attacked the Greek cities of Ionia in Asia Minor, causing a lot of trouble there. For a hundred years they took possession of the city of Antander on the shores of the Aegean Sea - it was even called Cimmeris at one time. The Scythians then attacked Ionia, causing great damage, in particular, to Miletus.

But, on the other hand, the Milesians and other Greeks managed to gain a foothold in the Northern Black Sea region relatively unproblematically precisely due to the fact that a significant part of its inhabitants were then on these Central Asian campaigns, and the Cimmerians generally disappeared in them as a historical character. The returning Scythians engaged in wars with the Thracians for a long time. Therefore, troubles from the natives for the Greek colonists were reduced, for the most part, to the infrequent raids of the Scythians on their cities and chora and to the above-described troubles from the Tauri, who indulged in piracy.

But over time, the aggressive attacks of the Scythians became more frequent, and conflicts with the local Maeotian (Azovian) tribes began to constantly arise in the Bosporus. The settlers began to pay more attention to the walls of their cities, and their patrol units increased their vigilance. On the Kerch Peninsula, a powerful Tiritak rampart was erected from the eastern spurs of the Crimean Mountains to Meotida (the Sea of ​​Azov). Over time, the fortifications of Panticapaeum surpassed those of Athens.

The external threat also affected the internal political situation in the policies. In Olbia, the tyranny of Pausanias, a native of the aristocracy, arose, relying both on the aristocratic religious union and on the civil militia led by him, with whom he was very popular - under his command it performed well in battles.

In the Cimmerian Bosporus, a symmachy formed - a military alliance of the Greek peoples located there. Panticapaeum took the leading position in the alliance. The tyranny of a successful commander, an aristocrat by birth, Archeanact, also arose in him. He became the de facto head of the allied army, and also found support in the Amphictyony - a religious union of residents of all Bosporan cities united around the Panticapaean temple of Apollo. Archeanact passed on power by inheritance; his descendants, the Archeanactids, ruled until approximately 438 BC. e. and even called themselves kings.

The situation for the Greeks became significantly more complicated after the e. The Scythians and Thracians concluded a peace treaty. Now the Hellenic cities became the object of especially close attention of the Scythian kings and nobility.

The raids continued, but the Scythian elite had much more serious intentions. Although she did her best to resist the penetration of foreign culture into the nomadic environment, she could no longer do anything about her own greedy interest in its fruits. Anacharsis and Skil went too far in their spiritual acceptance of her - but it was difficult for everyone to look away from the shine of gold jewelry, the beauty of statues, amphoras, fabrics and much more. All this could be bought, bartered, received in the form of booty or tribute, but this was not enough. Unable to organize maritime trade themselves, the Scythian elite decided to use Greek cities for it: through them, in exchange for gold, silver, tin (a necessary component for obtaining bronze, which was then becoming scarce), fish, bread, furs, slaves, they would receive everything that pleases soul. On the one hand, for this it was necessary to take more and more of what was needed for export from the tribes of the forest-steppe and forests - this was not the point. On the other hand, it was necessary to put pressure on the Greeks.

The policies of the western part of the Northern Black Sea region - Nikonium on the Dniester estuary, Olbia and others - could not successfully resist the Scythians. They did not have a close connection with each other. Geographically, they were quite far from each other; there was also no great need for economic and trade relations. And they had to agree to Scythian patronage.

It is clear that such a dictatorship was not a joy. But, on the other hand, the trade turnover of these cities has increased significantly. To be fair, Scythian patronage was not very burdensome. The official part of the visits of King Skilos to Olbia described by Herodotus was the royal supervision of the progress of commerce. Skil’s father and the brother who killed Skil did the same. Supervision could also be carried out by trusted persons - both of Scythian and Hellenic origin. As for polis self-government, activities not related to the royal interests, private life - here the Greeks in most cases were completely left to themselves: they elected officials, gathered at public meetings, worshiped the gods as they saw fit, organized an army, attended the theater , stadium, gymnasium, worked and traded.

These cities became centers of interpenetration of both cultures. It is interesting that coins were minted in Nikonia with the name of the inveterate Hellenophile Scythian king Skilos. The time was not far off when noble Scythians would visit Greek cities not only on business, but also to simply live for a while - with impunity.

Herodotus writes about the “Hellenic Scythians” living near Olbia - the colonists called them Mixellenes. They led a lifestyle increasingly approaching a sedentary one and were engaged in agriculture. Perhaps these were partly people descended from mixed marriages, but for the most part they were natural Scythians who found a place for themselves in the way of life of the Greek polis, settling on its periphery as military settlers.

The new situation significantly influenced the life of the “Scythian ploughmen,” a significant part of whom were Slavs. They now had to increasingly engage in the production of export goods - grain. by Furst Florian

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