Great Britain island. British Isles. Geography and history What is the name of the island of Great Britain

Plan
Introduction
1 Geographical realities
2 Political realities
3 Adjectives and other derived words
4 Names of residents
5 Historical aspects
6 Numbering of monarchs
Bibliography

Introduction

Chart illustrating terminology associated with the British Isles

The use of different terms to describe the different (and sometimes overlapping) geographical, political and historical realities associated with the concept of the British Isles often leads to confusion and misunderstanding. The purpose of this article is to explain the meaning and relationships of these terms. It should be remembered that word usage in Russian may differ markedly from that in other languages, in particular in English.

1. Geographical realities

· British Isles- an archipelago that includes the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, as well as groups of the Hebrides, Orkney, Shetland Islands and the smaller islands of Anglesey, Maine, etc.

· UK (island)- the largest of the British Isles. "Great" simply means "greater" than Brittany (the historical region in northern France), not the "greatness" of the state. The latter was settled by the Britons (from Cornwall) around 500 and was called "Little Britain" by them. For example, in French "Brittany" would be Bretagne, and "Great Britain" - Grande Bretagne .

· Ireland (island)- the second largest of the British Isles.

· Channel Islands- a group of islands in the English Channel off the coast of France. They are not directly part of Great Britain and do not represent a political unity, being divided into two crown lands: Jersey and Guernsey. Geographically, they do not belong to the British Isles, but may be included in them for political reasons.

· British Isles in geographical terms

· Island of Great Britain

· Island of Ireland

· Isle of Man - geographical concept and crown land

· Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark and Herm)

· Crown territories: United Kingdom, Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey

2. Political realities

· Great Britain- the short name of the state that occupies the island of Great Britain and the north of the island of Ireland, exercises guardianship over the Channel Islands and about. Maine, which are not formally part of the country.

· - full name of the same state

· Britannia- in the modern meaning - an unofficial synonym for the concepts of “Great Britain” and “British Empire”; historically Roman province (lat. Britannia), approximately corresponding to the territory of England and Wales.

· United Kingdom- tracing paper from English The United Kingdom- abbreviation of the term The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), rarely used in Russian and corresponding in Russian to the term "Great Britain".

· England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland are the constituent administrative and political parts of Great Britain.

· England- the historical core of Great Britain, in colloquial speech it can be used as a synonym for the latter. In the USSR and pre-revolutionary Russia it was used much more often than the term “Great Britain”, including in scientific literature.

· Crown lands- the name of three possessions of Great Britain that are not directly part of it, but are not overseas territories. These include: Bailiwicks Jersey And Guernsey(Channel Islands) and Isle Of Man in the Irish Sea.

· In addition, in Russian there are no generally accepted terms for the following concepts:

· England, Wales and Scotland as a single whole - Great Britain .

· Great Britain + crown lands in the British Isles (Mane, Jersey and Guernsey) - British Isles (≠ British Isles in a geographical sense). When used loosely in this sense, the term "Great Britain" is usually used.

· Republic of Ireland- another sovereign state in the British Isles, occupies most of the island of Ireland.

· Northern Ireland(Ulster) is one of the four administrative and political parts of Great Britain (see above).

· Brittany- the name of a peninsula in France, once inhabited by Britons from the south of Britain and giving it its name.

· United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

· Scotland

· Northern Ireland

Republic of Ireland

3. Adjectives and other derived words

· British- adjective to the words "Great Britain" and "Britain"

4. Names of residents

· British(British, British) - British citizens. Includes the following main ethno-linguistic groups:

· English- residents of England and/or speakers of English.

· Welsh- residents of Wales and/or speakers of Welsh.

· Scots- residents of Scotland and/or speakers of either Gaelic (Highland Scots) or Anglo-Scottish.

· Irish- residents of Ireland, including Northern Ireland, only a minority of whom speak Irish, the rest only English.

· Britons(Briton, Briton) - a group of Celtic tribes, until the 5th century. n. e. making up the main population of Britain except for the northernmost regions inhabited by the Picts. They spoke a (common) British language, from which others later developed. Brythonic languages: Cumbrian, Welsh, Cornish and Breton.

· Bretons- people in Brittany.

5. Historical aspects

The Greeks called the British Isles Pretanike .

The Romans called Great Britain Britannias or Alba, and Ireland and other islands Britanniae. After landing in 41, they called the territory close to modern England and Wales Britain, Scotland Caledonia, and Hibernia- Ireland.

At first, the British Isles were home to the kingdoms of the Celts, Saxons and Vikings (Rheged, Strathclyde and Wessex).

· 843 - the emergence of the Kingdom of Scotland.

· 927 - the emergence of the Kingdom of England.

· 1283 - Principality of Wales.

· 1536 - first merger: the Principality of Wales joins the Kingdom of England.

· 1541 - the emergence of the Kingdom of Ireland (originally a lordship).

· 1707 - second merger: the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland unite to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.

· 1801 - Third merger: The Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland unite to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

· 1919 - the emergence of the self-proclaimed state of the Irish Republic.

· 1922 - split into two independent states:

1. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland;

2. Free State of Ireland (later the Republic of Ireland).

6. Numbering of monarchs

In 1603, the Scottish king James VI inherited the throne of England as James I of England (and called himself James I of Great Britain, despite the fact that there was no Kingdoms of Great Britain until 1707), but the countries retained independent parliaments and sovereignty. Scottish historians often call this monarch James VI and I, English historians prefer - James I and VI .

Many Scots (and not just nationalists) were upset in 1953 when, at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, she was given a second number, even though neither the former Kingdom of Great Britain (1707-1801) nor the present United Kingdom (since 1801) had an Elizabeth I However, Elizabeth I was already in the kingdom of England (927-1707).

Bibliography:

1. “Britain”, Oxford English Dictionary: “More fully Great Britain.” As a geographical and political term: (the main island and smaller offshore islands making up) England, Scotland, and Wales, sometimes with the Isle of Man"

2. New Oxford American Dictionary: “Britain: an island that consists of England, Wales, and Scotland. The name is broadly synonymous with Great Britain, but the longer form is more usual for the political unit.”

3. “Britain”, Oxford English Dictionary (Online Edition): “Britain: 1a - The proper name of the whole island containing England, Wales, and Scotland, with their dependencies; more fully called Great Britain; now also used for the British state or empire as a whole.”

4. “Great Britain”, New Oxford American Dictionary: “Great Britain: England, Wales, and Scotland considered as a unit. The name is also often used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom."

Introduction

1. Geographical location. Geological structure, relief, minerals

2. Climate. Inland waters. Soils

3. Natural areas. Animal and plant world.

4. Environmental problems and protected areas

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

The object of study of the physical geography of continents and oceans is the natural territorial complexes of the Earth, planetary patterns and morphostructural features of their origin, development and changes under the influence of human economic activity.

The formation of natural complexes occurs in the geographic shell (geosphere), which is a complexly constructed integral continuously developing material system, consisting of four qualitatively different, interpenetrating and interacting spheres: the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.

Central Europe includes the physical-geographical country of the British Isles. It is located on the territory of the young Epipaleozoic platform, mainly in that part of it, the foundation is represented by structures created as a result of the Hercynian folding. The exception is the northern regions of Great Britain and most of Ireland, which belong to the Epipoleozoic platform with a basement formed mainly by Caledonian folding.

The country has very clear boundaries in the south, west and north, where it is washed by the seas, as well as in the areas of contact of the Epihercynian platform with the structures of the Alpine geosynclinal region.

1. Geographical location. Geological structure, relief, minerals

The British Isles are located off the north-west coast of Europe, between 60o 52" and 49o 10" north latitude and 1o 46" east and 8o 10" west longitude, and are separated from the mainland by the English Channel and the North Sea

The British Isles are the only large archipelago off the coast of Western Europe. It consists of two large islands - Great Britain and Ireland - and a large number of smaller ones - Maine, Anglesey, White, Skye, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland. The British Isles are the largest archipelago in Europe. The total area of the archipelago is about 325 thousand km2, of which 230 thousand km2 is on the island of Great Britain and 84 thousand km2 on the island of Ireland (Figure 1).

The entire region is located a short distance from the mainland, within the continental shelf, which is especially wide in the east, where the North Sea lies within its boundaries. The northern and western coasts are washed directly by the Atlantic Ocean, and the Irish Sea is located between Ireland and Great Britain.

Most of the British Isles belong to structures on the Kaledin fold foundation. In the extreme north-west, in the Hebrides and northern Scotland, there are remains of fragmented Precambrian sites, while Hercynian folded structures are widespread south of the Bristol-London line. All folded structures of the British Isles underwent strong vertical dissection, which became especially intense at the end of the Neogene and the beginning of the Anthropocene. These processes created an extremely fragmented topography with alternating protrusions of the ancient folded basement and depressions filled with sedimentary deposits of various ages and origins (Figure 2).

In the Quaternary period, almost the entire region, with the exception of the southern part of the island of Great Britain, was covered by glaciation, which left powerful moraine accumulations and had a great influence on the formation of the relief. The last glaciation had a local mountainous character, with centers in Scotland, Ireland and Wales.

The depth of the coastal waters of the British Isles almost nowhere exceeds 200 m. The shallow water area is limited, sharply defined by a ledge from which the oceanic depths begin. On the surface of the bottom of the continental shallows, preserved hollows of river valleys and areas with dune relief were discovered, indicating relatively recent subsidence of land below sea level in the area of the British Isles. The final separation of the archipelago from the mainland and the formation of the modern outlines of its coasts occurred already in post-glacial times.

The island position and the pronounced influence of the Atlantic, the sharp dismemberment of the coasts, which further enhances this influence, the dissected relief and the wide distribution of anthropogenic landscapes determine the main features of the nature of the British Isles. It should also be added that the islands, which have recently lost contact with the mainland, are very similar in many natural features to their neighboring areas, but their island position has left a certain imprint on both the natural features and the living conditions of the population.

The relief of the British Isles is dominated by leveled mountain ranges of small height and area, alternating with hilly basins and plateaus. The maximum height is only slightly higher than 1,300 m. The coastline of the islands is very dissected. This is due to tectonic faults and repeated uplifts and subsidences of land that occurred during the geological development of the islands. Large bays jut into the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland where the surface is flat. On larger peninsulas, on the contrary, mountain ranges rise. In the structure of the coasts in many places, a series of marine terraces are clearly expressed, the formation of which is the result of repeated changes in sea level.

The northwest coast of Great Britain and the west coast of Ireland are particularly rugged. In the first case, the fjord type is well expressed, in the second - the rias type. The east coast of Great Britain is less dissected, where it is dominated by a straight, low-lying coastline with several bays protruding deeply into the land.

The northwest coast of Great Britain and the west coast of Ireland are particularly rugged. In the first case, the fjord type is well expressed, in the second - the rias type. The east coast of Great Britain is less dissected, where it is dominated by a straight, low-lying coast with several bays protruding deeply into the land.

In the north of Great Britain rises the Scottish Highlands, stretching from northeast to southwest from one coast of the island to the other. The deep Glen Mawr tectonic rift divides the highlands into two parts: the Northern Highlands and the Grampian Mountains, which contain the islands' highest peak, Ben Nevis (1,343 m). The Caledonian Canal runs along the Glen Mawr depression, connecting the Mary Firth on the north-east coast of Scotland with the Firth of Lorn on the west coast. The extreme northern part of the Highlands, as a result of recent faulting and fragmentation, separated from the island of Great Britain, forming two groups of islands - the Inner and Outer Hebrides.

The North Scottish Highlands as a whole are a horst massif with a leveled surface and individually prominent peaks. Its topography shows traces of the effects of Quaternary glaciation: piles of boulders, “ram’s foreheads,” and numerous trough valleys. The north-west fjord coast of Scotland is rocky and accompanied by a mass of islands. The activity of the surf on the rocky shores of the islands has produced a variety of bizarre shapes. Particularly famous is Fingal's Grotto on the small island of Staffa, formed in the coastal basalt rocks. At high tide, this grotto fills with water, and at low tide you can enter it without getting your feet wet.

The South Scottish Uplands, 500-600 m high, have a smoother relief with a gently undulating surface, cut through by wide valleys. Its western part is higher and more dissected than the eastern part; it contains tarn lakes, accumulations of boulders and moraines. The northern edge of the upland, like the southern edge of the Highlands, is formed by faults.

Between the Grampian Mountains and the Southern Uplands, in a broad ridge lies the Mid-Scottish Plain. Its surface is composed of red sandstones, clays and limestones of the Devonian and Carboniferous, containing coal. These deposits are intruded by outcrops of volcanic rocks, forming numerous dome-shaped hills.

To the south of the Southern Highlands, in Northern England, there are highlands and rolling plains bordering the coast. The central part of Northern England is occupied by the Pennine Alps, which extend in the meridional direction - an anticlinal uplift composed of coal rocks. The arch part of the anticline is eroded, and cuesta ledges have been developed in the slopes, gently descending to the east and west.

Adjacent to the Pennines to the north-west is the ancient dome-shaped volcanic massif Cumberland. During glaciation, a complex of mountain-glacial forms formed on the slopes of the massif. Its slopes are cut through by large cirques, trough valleys diverge along the slopes in radial directions and form expansions occupied by lakes. Due to its many lakes, the Cumberland Massif received the name Lake District.

From the south, the hilly Midland Plain, composed of Triassic and Jurassic deposits, adjoins the foot of the Pennines. The hills are cut through by numerous valleys and ravines, on the slopes of which strata of red-colored rocks are exposed. Due to the predominance of red tones in the landscape, Midland is called the Red Plain.

In the west, far into the sea, the peninsula of Wales juts out, almost entirely occupied by the Cambrian Mountains. The relief of the mountains is smooth, the peaks are rounded, the slopes are gentle. Only the highest parts, such as the Snowdon volcanic massif (1,085 m), have mountainous terrain formed under the influence of ancient glaciation. The peninsula is separated from the rest of Great Britain by the wide valley of the River Severn. In the extreme south of Wales, areas of Hercynian structures can be traced, forming low uplifts in the Cardiff area.

The Bristol Bay Graben separates the Welsh peninsula from the Cornish peninsula, which forms the southwestern tip of Great Britain. This peninsula is occupied by peneplanated hills, protruding among layers of younger sedimentary rocks. The crystalline massifs of Dartmoor Forest and Exmoor Forest reach the highest heights (500-600 m) on the Cornish peninsula. Recent land subsidence has caused the dismemberment of the coast and the formation of ingression bays, as well as the separation of numerous rocky islands from the coast. The eastern part of the peninsula is occupied by the low-lying Somersetshire plain, composed of Mesozoic rocks.

The south-eastern part of Great Britain differs in geological structure and relief from all other parts of it. Folded structures do not come to the surface anywhere, and sedimentary deposits of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age are distributed throughout the area. The main feature of the relief of this area is the distribution of cuestas, stretching from southwest to northeast and facing the steep edges towards the ancient mountain uplifts of Wales. To the south, the foothills of the Pennines are bordered by the rolling Midland Plain, composed of red sandstones, as well as Triassic and Jurassic limestones and shales. Its high dissected edge - the Cotswold Hills - reaches a height of 300-350 m. From the south of this cuesta stretches a low zone filled with sandy-clay deposits of Jurassic and Cretaceous age. In the south, the depression gives way to the chalk cuesta plateau of the Chiltern Hills, reaching 250 m in height. It slopes gently south to an elongated depression of the Thames basin, or London basin, filled with thick Cenozoic marine sediments. To the south of the Thames basin, Cretaceous rocks again come to the surface, forming two ridges - the Northern and Southern Downs, steeply plunging to the north, towards the London Basin, and to the south, towards the English Channel.

The entire interior of Ireland is occupied by the low-lying Central Irish Plain. Its surface is composed of Carboniferous limestones, which in some places are covered with a thin layer of clayey deposits. All forms of karst relief are found on the plain.

On all sides, the Central Irish Plain is surrounded by highly fragmented mountain ranges with a height of no more than 1,000 m. In the north is the Donegal massif, off the north-eastern coast are the Antrim Mountains, composed of basaltic lavas, under which rocks of various ages are hidden. The northwestern protrusion of the Irish coast is filled with the strongly dissected Connaught Mountains, in the southeast the Wicklow Mountains stretch along the coast, in the southwest there is the highest part of Ireland - the Kerry Mountains with the peak of Carrantowhill (1,041 m).

In addition to tectonic and erosional dissection, the relief of the mountains of Ireland shows traces of ancient glaciation, which create a sharp, almost alpine relief at low altitudes. This is especially true in the Kerry Mountains, which are composed of thick layers of ancient red sandstone. On their slopes, huge circuses occupied by lakes have been preserved. The Kerry Mountains drop in cliffs to a deeply dissected coastline.

During the complex geological history of the islands, a variety of minerals were formed in their depths. They are confined mainly to the outskirts of ancient mountain structures and to volcanic processes of various ages. Coal is the main wealth of the island of Great Britain. Coal deposits are especially rich in the Pennines, in the Mid-Scottish Lowlands, in the foothills of southern Wales, with industrial reserves of 4 billion tons.

The largest deposit of iron ore is in the East Midlands: 60% of all reserves are concentrated here. Significant reserves of rock and potash salts have been discovered in Cheshire and Durham.

Iron ores of sedimentary origin occur along the outskirts of the Pieniny Mountains. The iron content in the ore is no more than 28%.

Deposits of copper and tin ores were concentrated in the granite intrusions of the Cornwall peninsula, but at present they have already been heavily worked out and have lost their importance.

Lead-zinc and hematite ores were found in the Cambelden massif, and lead-zinc and tin ores were found in Cornwall. Much hope is placed on North Sea oil and gas, the total reserves of which are 2.6 billion tons and 1,400 billion cubic meters, respectively. m.

Reserves of non-ferrous metals associated with volcanism in the Neogene are found in the north of the island of Ireland (Figure 2).

Ireland has large reserves of peat, distributed both on the plain and on the flat surfaces of the mountain ranges.

2 Climate. Inland waters. Soils

The harsh and wet westerly winds that blow throughout the year bring large amounts of moisture to the British Isles. Particularly high precipitation falls on the western slopes of the mountains, where annual amounts exceed 1,500 mm, and in some places even 2,000 mm. Precipitation falls primarily in the form of light, drizzling rain, with some areas receiving rain almost daily during the winter. In the south-west of Ireland and Cornwall there is no snow throughout the winter, and in other places there are only 10-20 days with snow (in Greenwich about 14 days, and Edinburgh - 20). The eastern and southeastern regions receive 700-800 mm of precipitation per year. There are less clouds there and the winds are not so harsh.

In spring there are cold northerly winds, which significantly retard the growth of crops in the east of Scotland, and sometimes dry easterly winds. This time of year is usually the least rainy. Spring in the British Isles is cooler and longer than at the same latitudes on the continent.

In Great Britain, as in other countries with a maritime climate, summers are relatively cool: the average temperature of the warmest month - July - is 1-2 degrees lower than at the same latitudes of the mainland. In the summer months, cyclonic activity decreases, and the distribution of average July temperatures is more consistent with the latitudinal zonality: in the southeast of the country +16 degrees, and in the extreme northwest +12 degrees. Maximum temperatures in the southeast of England sometimes rise above 27 degrees, and sometimes as high as 32 degrees. Maximum precipitation here occurs in the second half of summer.

Warm and humid winds blowing from the Atlantic are responsible for the abundance of rain in the western regions of Great Britain. On average, 2,000 mm of precipitation falls there annually, while in eastern England, located in the “rain shadow,” it is only about 600 mm, and in some places even 500 mm. The mountains thus act as a natural barrier, trapping moist air on the western side. Heavy rainfall adversely affects the growth of many crops, especially wheat and barley. In general, grain crops in the British Isles perform well in drier years, but grasses often burn out then.

In autumn, cyclonic activity intensifies, the weather becomes cloudy and rainy, sometimes with strong storms, especially in September and October. When warm air is carried onto the cooled surface of the islands, fog often occurs on the coasts.

The annual amplitude of temperature fluctuations in the southwest of Ireland is approximately 7-8°C (with an average temperature of the coldest month +6, +7°C), in the east of Ireland up to 10-11°C, in the southeast of England -14°C C. Almost frost-free winters and relatively cool summers are typical for the entire region, but in the east and southeast frosts are more frequent and summers are hotter than in the northwest. Summer temperatures in the north of Scotland rarely rise above 20°C. The number of sunny days in the southeast reaches 40%, while in the west it is only 17-20%.

Some years there are sharp deviations from average weather conditions. In winter, they are caused by intrusions of arctic air, which are accompanied by frosts and snowfalls; in summer, they are caused by the spread of tropical air masses that cause drought. However, such anomalies are extremely rare (Figure 3).

One of the natural features of the British Isles is dense fogs, which are especially common in winter in the area of large cities, where there is a lot of dust and smoke in the air, which serve as condensation nuclei. The main reason for their formation is the contact of relatively cold waters with the warmer waters of the North Atlantic Current and the air temperature contrasts created by this. Fogs in large cities sometimes reach such density that they become impenetrable even to the most powerful lighting; they last for several days without a break, impede traffic and cause many accidents.

The river network of islands is very dense due to the terrain and climate. Almost throughout the entire territory of the country, except for some southeastern regions, the amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation, and therefore a dense network of deep rivers is developed. The largest are the Severn, which has a length of 354 km, and the Thames (338 km), whose basins border each other, and the Shannon (368 km), which are significantly shorter in length than many rivers on the mainland, but they are full-flowing all year round, do not freeze and are therefore convenient for shipping. The Thames is of greatest importance to the UK economy. Its basin is home to 1/5 of the country's total population. The capital's conurbation, Greater London, is also located here.

The rivers of the low-lying part of the country, located east of the main watershed, are calm. In the mountainous regions of Scotland and Wales, the sources of the rivers are at significant altitudes, so the rivers flow quickly and often overflow their banks, especially in the rainy season. The short but deep and fast rivers of north-west Scotland and Wales are used to generate electricity. More than 60 hydroelectric power stations have been built here. The estuaries of the largest rivers in Great Britain - the Thames, Severn, Humber, Mersey, Clyde and Forth - are wide, artificially deepened and straightened bays. They are home to the largest seaports, the largest port and city of Scotland - Glasgow, and industrial hubs. At high tide, salt water penetrates estuaries far upstream, so the population of most seaports is supplied with drinking water from upper rivers, underground reservoirs and mountain lakes.

Natural waterways are supplemented by a dense network of canals, the creation of which was favored by the low altitude and weak expression of watersheds between individual river systems.

On the island of Ireland, karst processes play an important role in the formation of the river network. Many rivers disappear into underground voids and then reappear. They are largely fed by karst springs and lakes.

The largest lakes in Great Britain are Loch Neagh (about 400 sq. km) in northern Ireland, as well as Loch Lomond and Loch Ness in Scotland. The numerous lakes of the Scottish Highlands and the Circle of Lakes are very picturesque and attract many tourists. They serve as a flow regulator and are used as local transport routes. So Loch Ness and Loch Lochy, located in the Great Glen and connected by a canal, form a direct waterway between the east and west coasts of Scotland. The Circle of Lakes has long been a supplier of fresh water to Manchester, which receives it through two aqueducts over 100 km long. There are no large lakes in the lowlands of Great Britain, but there are many artificial reservoirs created on the site of former peat mining, sand and gravel quarries.

Underground reservoirs have long been the main source of high-quality water for the people of lowland England. The largest underground pool, the area of which reaches almost 30 thousand square meters. km, located under the Cretaceous limestones in the southeast of England. Currently, underground reservoirs supply 2/5 of all water consumed in England and Wales (Table 1).

Table 1 – Water resources of Great Britain and Ireland

The UK's most fertile soils are found in its warm and

the relatively dry southeastern part, where they formed mainly on calcareous rocks. Relatively high summer temperatures here contribute to increased biological activity and the accumulation of humus in the top layer of soil. Initially, this entire area was covered with broad-leaved forests, under which brown forest soils formed. Currently, the soils are highly cultivated as a result of long-term use for crops of barley, wheat and sugar beets, as well as grasses. In the swampy coastal lowlands - the marshes - and in some other flat areas of England that have undergone reclamation, podzolized brown forest soils have been preserved under natural and perennial pastures. Quite fertile peaty alluvial soils are common in the drained maritime lowlands of the Fenland, as well as in the Trent River valley. In these areas, more than in other regions of the country, wheat is sown, gardens and berry fields are planted, and intensive gardening is practiced. On the hills and cuesta ridges, thin humus-carbonate and soddy-carbonate soils are developed. The western and north-western regions of Great Britain are dominated by acidic brown podzolic soils. These lands are used for grass growing and as natural pastures. In the mountainous regions of Cornwall, the Pennines, the Circle of Lakes and Scotland, where the climate is damp and cool, soddy-podzolic soils are developed, which are easily subject to waterlogging, leading to the formation of peat bogs.

The soils of southern Britain can be divided into types according to the features of the topography. In the north and west, the soils are acidic and relatively infertile, since intense leaching occurs with heavy rainfall. In the south and east, soils have a neutral or alkaline reaction. The soils of southern Britain vary greatly in texture, from stony on rocky moraines to fine-grained on the heavy clays of Staffordshire. The differences in the thickness of the soil profile are also significant - from denudation mountains to river valleys with a layer of alluvium.

The soils of Ireland are infertile. In the west, where limestones come to the surface, barren limestone heaths and heaths are common. But on the Central Plain, dry areas are dominated by light podzolic soils with a significant content of humus, and swampy peatlands become fertile after drainage. Acidic soils are also observed; the development of these soils is characterized by high moisture saturation and a constant lack of lime. In addition, phosphorus deficiency is characteristic. Therefore, to obtain fertile soil, it is necessary to liming the soil and applying phosphate fertilizers (Figure 4).

3 Natural areas. Animal and plant world. Internal differences

The British Isles are part of the range of broad-leaved forests, but, obviously, were never completely covered with them. In the north of Great Britain, pine and birch forests on podzolic soils predominate, in the southern regions - oak, and in some places beech-hornbeam forests on forest brown soils. Currently, forests occupy only 4-5% of the islands' area. In most cases they have been exterminated, but in some places the absence of forests should be considered the result of natural conditions.

The country is currently undergoing afforestation. Exotic tree species (Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, fine-scaled larch) were imported from other countries and widespread. Forests currently cover just 10% of the UK's area. They are mainly preserved along river valleys and in the lower parts of mountain slopes. Oak, elm, hornbeam, beech and ash grow in the lower mountain belt of England and Wales. In the north of Scotland in the Grampian Mountains and the North-West Highlands, the lower belt of the mountains is occupied by mixed oak-spruce-pine forests, and pine and birch forests are common higher up. The upper limit of the forest reaches 500-600 m, and broad-leaved forests usually do not rise above 400 m.

The natural perennial meadows of England and Wales contain wild daffodils (an emblem of the Welsh), lilies, purple orchis and primroses, which have long been used to make wine in English villages. Above the forest line in the mountains of England and Wales, cereal-forb meadows and heathland with juniper, blueberry and crowberry predominate.

The vegetation cover of southern Britain is more characterized by shrubs rather than trees. Noteworthy features include hawthorn in rural hedgerows, honeysuckle, hazel, rose hips, holly, and in higher heathland areas gorse and heather. Among the most common herbaceous plants are wood anemone, bellflower, primrose, marigold, hyacinth, foxglove, clover, columbine, iris, vetch, alfalfa, hoary, woodruff, wild strawberry, buttercup, poppy, dandelion, geranium, poppy, meadowsweet, mother -and-stepmother, speedwell and stinkhorn. Mistletoe, nettle and mustard are also found. Very diverse cereals. In addition to them, ferns and sedges grow in damp places; among the latter, reeds are the most striking. On mountain heaths, where the terrain is more rugged, grasses have to withstand strong competition from gorse, heather and bracken.

Although most of southern Britain has favorable conditions for tree growth, the number of tree species is limited. Here, the destruction of forests during continental glaciations (maximum glaciation extended to the Thames Valley) and the predominance of Arctic conditions in ice-free areas apparently played a role here. Most of the trees that have managed to establish themselves in this country belong to the category of deciduous species, with a notable exception being the yew. Among deciduous species, oak, beech, birch, ash, willow, aspen, alder and sycamore are especially common. On the plains, British oak impresses with its size, but in elevated areas it cannot compete with beech or birch, and in wet basins with alder or willow. On chalk limestones it gives way to ash, beech and birch. Poplar is also very characteristic of the British plains. Among the introduced tree species, walnut, noble chestnut, pine and boxwood stand out.

Ireland's soil and climate conditions are unfavorable for tree growth. Treelessness is a characteristic feature of the Irish landscape. Forested lands occupy less than 2% of the country's area. Grasses grow well throughout, providing fodder for livestock farming, Ireland's leading agricultural sector. The cultivation of forage grasses is widespread. Among grain crops, preference is given to those that tolerate cool, humid climates. Wheat produces its greatest yields in the lower Liffey valley. Flax is also grown in the Bann Valley. Root crops such as fodder beet, turnips and potatoes are cultivated in many areas of Ireland, but forage crops and natural hay crops predominate. Pastures and hayfields form the main background of the surface of Ireland, with the exception of the most elevated areas and marshes. Ferns, heather and squat shrubs grow in the mountains.

Along the western coasts and on the surface of mountain ranges above 200-300 m, heathlands dominate with a predominance of ordinary and Western European heather, and an admixture of ferns, blueberries and some cereals. In many places, heathlands are specifically preserved as hunting grounds.

Thanks to the mild winters, some evergreens grow in the British Isles. The flora includes, for example, the evergreen holly shrub or holly in the undergrowth of oak forests. In the south and especially in the southwest, many cultivated Mediterranean plants planted in the ground tolerate winter well without losing foliage (Figure 5).

The fauna of the British Isles is very poor. Large animals are now almost never found in their natural state. For example,

Many large mammals, such as the bear, wild boar and Irish red deer, have long been extirpated from the British Isles as a result of intensive hunting, and the wolf has been eliminated as a pest. Today there are only 56 species of mammals left, 13 of which are introduced. The largest representative of mammals, the red deer, lives in the highlands of Cornwall, in the Scottish Highlands. There are quite a few roe deer found north of Yorkshire and in the south of England. Wild goats live in mountainous areas. The gray seal is found off the islands and coastal cliffs of Cornwall and Wales, while the common seal prefers the coasts of Scotland, the eastern coast of Northern Ireland and the surrounding islands. There are no large predatory animals in Great Britain. Throughout the country, except in the highlands, foxes and badgers are found on the edges of forests and in groves. The otter is widespread and intensively hunted. Of the small predators, the most numerous are ermine and weasel; ferrets are found in Wales, and European wild cats and American martens are found in the mountains of Scotland.

The British Isles are home to 130 bird species, including many songbirds. The national symbol of England is the red-breasted robin. Millions of birds migrate along the coast of Great Britain from south to north and back.

Due to extensive work on the implementation of marshes in the country, the population of ducks, geese and other waterfowl has significantly decreased. Therefore, in recent years, special territories have been allocated for the protection and breeding of these species. The organization of nature reserves contributed to a significant change in the animal world of the British Isles.

In the waters off the British Isles, there are various types of fish: sablefish are found in the surface layers of sea waters, there are a lot of herring from May to October, sprat feed in the bays and estuaries of rivers, and sardines and mackerel appear off the coast of the Cornish Peninsula. The most important commercial fish from distant and near waters are cod, haddock and whiting.

In southern Britain, many animal species have become extinct, but red deer, foxes and hares are still found there. Rabbits and squirrels are common. The number of birds, especially waterfowl, has decreased due to the drainage of swamps; The destruction of vegetation cover had a negative impact on some bird species. At the same time, thanks to human activity, the living conditions of sparrows, pigeons and, to a lesser extent, robins have improved. Other bird species in England include the cuckoo, meadow pipit, linnet, lemon and snow finches, chaffinch, wren, garden redstart and various species of finches and thrushes including blackbird, robin and nightingale. Pheasants and grouse, a partridge common in the northern counties of England, are still found.

Differences between individual parts of the British Isles are due to the diversity of natural conditions and the uneven distribution of natural resources.

To the south of the Pennines there is a poorly dissected topography, vast areas with fertile soils, deep rivers and a favorable climate, and the proximity of mineral deposits.

The southern Pennines have better preserved natural landscapes than other areas. It has the most picturesque nature and warm climate of the southern coast.

To the north, on both sides of the Pieniny Mountains, there are fertile, hilly lowlands cut through by deep rivers.

Northern England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have mountainous terrain and poor soils. Compared to southern England and pennine England, there is less sun in the warmer months and significantly more rainfall throughout the year.

In Northern England, Scotland and Wales, coal production fell sharply.

The area of Southern England to the south and southwest of the Thames is a mosaic of low chalk hills and plateaus interspersed with small lowlands. North of the Thames the hilly terrain gradually gives way to the vast plain of the Fens, or Fenland, which becomes flat as it approaches the Wash, so that the sea constantly threatens to overwhelm the neat rectangles of fields separated by large and small canals and ditches. In the past, this area was very swampy.

To the north of Southern England lies the Midlands. Its entire territory, except for the southern tip of the Peninsky range in the north and the eastern spurs of the Cambrian Mountains in the west, is a vast hilly plain with two low plateaus: Central and Birgimgem. The climate of the Midlands is generally similar to the south-eastern part of England. Within its boundaries, precipitation is greater in the western part and on the plateau. The Midlands are better endowed with their own mineral resources than other areas of the British Isles. Limestone is found here in abundance, and in the county of Staffordshire there is a large deposit of refractory clay.

Pennine England. The geographical “axis” of the region is the Pennine Mountains, which rise from south to north from 550 to 720 m above sea level. The mountains are strongly flattened and are intersected by valleys in many places. The middle part of the Peninsky ridge is dissected by narrow valleys and turned into the Yorkshire Dales National Park. The western and eastern slopes of the Pennines, gently sloping in both directions, turn into hilly lowlands - Lancashire and Cheshire in the west, Yorkshire in the east.

Northern England. Located in the north-east of the region, the Cheviota Mountains and the entire area north of them to the Scottish border are part of the Northumberland National Park, the highlight of which is Hadrian's Wall, a 120 km long wall built “across” England by the Romans to protect the northern borders of their conquered lands from Celts and Picts. To the west, the wide valley of the River Eden separates the Pennines from the Cumberland Massif, or Lake District, where another national park is located. From the top of the dome-shaped massif, river valleys diverge radially, on which are “strung” many narrow long lakes.

Wales is a medium-sized mountainous peninsula and the island of Anglesey adjacent to it from the north-west. The peninsula is shaped like a horseshoe, the concave part of which is the vast Cardigan Bay. Almost the entire peninsula of Wales is occupied by the Cambrian Mountains, rising from south to north, and the heights here are low - from 250 to 750 m above sea level. Only in the far northwest are there peaks reaching 1,000 m above sea level; the highest of them, Snowdon (1,085 m), is covered with snow for six months. In the Snowdonia National Park created here, picturesque piles of rocks alternate with beautiful green valleys and blue lakes. The central part of the mountains is leveled, plateau-like, and the southern part is a series of low ridges stretching in a wide direction. The highest ridge in this part of Wales, the Brecon Beacons, became its second national park.

Another of the largest regions is Scotland. This is a mountainous country, the mountains of northern Scotland reaching considerable heights, rocky, intersected by deep valleys; in the southern part of the mountain below, leveled plateaus and rounded hills with granite outcrops predominate. There are more wide river valleys and coastal lowlands. Granite is mined in the mountains of Scotland, and uranium ore has been found. The mid-Scottish lowlands, composed mainly of ancient red sandstone, can only be called lowlands conditionally: in the center of it rises a chain of hills of volcanic origin and hundreds of smaller rocky ridges are scattered throughout. Only along the rivers there are strips of lowlands with fertile alluvial soils. The main resources of the area are located in the Mid-Scotland Lowlands - several deposits of coal. Thanks to the warming influence of the North Atlantic Current, Scotland's climate is much more moderate and milder than at the same latitudes of the mainland. Winters are even warmer than in the southeast of Great Britain, and summers are on average 2-3○ cooler. The western slopes of the mountains, exposed to oceanic winds, are devoid of tree vegetation, while Scottish pines, spruce and larches grow on the eastern slopes. Above the forest line, heathland, bogs and fern thickets dominate.

The territory of Northern Ireland (Ulster) is closest in its natural conditions to Scotland. The interior of Northern Ireland is a vast lowland area with large, shallow lakes, Lough Neagh, in the center. In the northeast, the volcanic Antrim Rise juts out into the sea, covered by a basalt shield. In the southwest, three spurs of the Sperry Mountains overlook the River Erne, in the valley of which two large lakes were formed - Upper Lough Erne and Lower Lough Erne. Just like in Scotland, the low-lying areas are covered with sediments brought in by a glacier. There are many peat bogs in the mountains. The climate of Northern Ireland is very humid and cool, the rivers are deep, and there are many small lakes.

4.Environmental problems and protected areas

In general, the British Isles are characterized by a very high degree of human modification of nature. Previous industrial development, the abundance of cities, and the development of transport played a big role in this. Nature was especially hard hit in areas adjacent to the Pennines, in the Midlands (“Black Country”), and in South Wales. Suffering from air and water pollution, from overpopulation and other consequences of their activities, the population of the British Isles carefully protects those few corners within Great Britain and Ireland that have not yet lost the attractive features of their nature: the Circle of Lakes, the mountain ranges of Cornwall, the North-West and South -Western Ireland.

It was not the comfort of smoke-shrouded cities during the Industrial Revolution that made the British appreciate and protect the rural landscape. In the British Isles it is not uncommon to find hedges, “English” gardens, and nurseries for the development of ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers. In the UK there is a special category of “protected” areas. In such places, new construction is limited or prohibited. Protected areas include green belts around major cities and conurbations, nature reserves, animal reserves, national forest parks, scenic areas, fertile agricultural land, coastal paths and mountain slopes above 250 m above sea level. There are 131 reserves for separately protected species of flora and fauna (Figure 6, 7). In England and Wales, 10 national parks have been created with a total area of about 12 thousand square meters. km.

Figure 6 - Area of protected areas in the UK

Figure 7 - Area of protected areas in Ireland

In the British Isles, nature reserves account for 88% of protected areas and only 12% are game reserves (Figure 8).

Figure 8 – Structure of protected areas

The problem of combating environmental pollution has become increasingly acute. We are concerned about the level of environmental pollution, especially in cities. The level of air pollution is quite high; the question arises about the elimination of 20 million tons of various waste annually. The amount of carbon dioxide and methane emissions into the atmosphere is growing every year (Table 1).

Table 2 – Amount of emissions of carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere

The problem of land resources is very acute. In England and Wales, it is estimated that around 2.5 million hectares of agricultural land will be used for other purposes by the end of the century. During the development of mineral resources, as many landscapes will be destroyed as in the previous two centuries; the most serious enemy of natural landscapes is sand and gravel quarries. They cause more damage to the area than coal mining.

Conclusion

This course work provides a physical and geographical description of the British Isles. The physical and geographical position, geology, relief, climate, soils, inland waters, flora and fauna, environmental problems and protected areas are considered.

From the text of the work it is clear that the British Isles are of continental origin. They are located near the continent of Europe, on a continental shelf. The separation of these islands by the strait was the result of land subsidence at the end of the Quaternary period. The sank land formed an underwater platform - a highly raised section of the seabed, as a result of which the seas washing the British Isles from the east and south are shallow.

The climate of the British Isles is temperate oceanic, with mild winters and cool summers. The nature of the islands is diverse, there are rare species of birds and animals; On the islands of Great Britain and Ireland there are many nature reserves and nature reserves; some islands and archipelagos that are not inhabited are sanctuaries for birds and animals. On the territory of the British Isles, in the course of a complex geological history, useful minerals were formed in the depths. Almost all known minerals have been found, except diamonds. The problem of combating environmental pollution has become acute.

The British Isles are rich in water resources. A dense network of deep rivers has been developed. The largest of them are the Severn, with a length of 354 km, and the Thames (338 km), the basins of which border each other.

The considered features of the British Isles are significant in area and extent in the latitudinal and meridional directions, giving rise to some internal differences.

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The British Isles are located in northwestern Europe. The following states are located on them: Ireland, Great Britain and the Virgin Islands, which are subordinate to the British crown and are not part of the state.

The largest of the above is the island of Great Britain. It is located in England, Wales and here it is very polite, but prim. Many holidays take place throughout England throughout the year.

Great Britain has rich vegetation. This is due to the humid and warm climate.

The British Isles (Virgin) are different in area. There are 36 of them in total. The largest of them are the following: Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Jost Van Dyke, Anegada.

These lands are located near the Caribbean and belong to the overseas territory of the islands with barely 25 thousand people. Most of them live in Tortola. The British Isles also have their own capital - Road Town.

Throughout its existence, the islands were captured by the Spaniards, Dutch, French and even pirates. However, the British achieved the greatest success in this. In 1072 they captured this territory. Since 1680, the British began to develop sugar cane plantations here.

The islands are mostly flat and hilly. There are no lakes or rivers. There are some problems with drinking water. They are solved with the help of desalination plants. The flora and fauna are not very diverse. Over the centuries, it was gradually destroyed by people, and today the islanders cannot boast of rich flora and fauna.

One of the most developed sectors of the economy is tourism. About 800,000 tourists from different countries visit the islands every year. The British Isles attract them with a hot, tropical climate. It's warm here all year round. From July to October there are often hurricanes, which can ruin your holiday a little. It is worth remembering that it definitely rains 5-7 days a month. The most favorable time for relaxation is from December to April. At this time there is the largest influx of tourists. Accordingly, prices will be relatively higher than, for example, in the summer.

Many tourists come here to look at the magnificent residences of English aristocrats. These fabulous buildings have not lost their grandeur over time and, as before, captivate at first sight. When it comes to entertainment, the British Isles offer it in abundance.

Fans of nightlife will enjoy visiting local bars, restaurants and clubs. Dancing and celebration here continues all night. No one will be left disappointed.

Very popular on the islands. Since 1972, the seven-day Spring Regatta has been held here. This stunning spectacle will be remembered for a long time. Endless peaks, amazing underwater caves with lava tunnels, grottoes and countless marine life make these places incredibly attractive for divers. There are more than a hundred such zones here. The most popular of them are located near the islands of Green Cay, Little Yost Van Dyke and Sandy Cay. And, of course, what vacation would be complete without beaches and gentle waves? They are found in abundance throughout the British Isles, in a variety of shapes and sizes. Calm, flat beaches with snow-white sand are perfect for couples with children. And for surfing lovers, it’s better to go where the endless waves are raging.

Those who want to go shopping should head to Road Town. Here you can find beautiful leather goods, as well as many different souvenirs.

It is worth noting that the cost of service in hotels and restaurants is usually included in the bill and amounts to 10% of the total amount. The hospitality and high qualifications of the staff make your stay easy and enjoyable. Once you come here, you will want to come back again.

The British Isles are the only large archipelago off the coast of Western Europe. It consists of two large islands - Great Britain and Ireland - and a large number of smaller ones - Maine, Anglesey, Wight, Inner and Outer Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland. The total area of the archipelago is about 325 thousand km2, of which 230 thousand km2 is on the island of Great Britain and 84 thousand km2 on the island of Ireland.

The depth of the coastal waters of the British Isles almost nowhere exceeds 200 m. The shallow water area is limited by a pronounced ledge from which the oceanic depths begin. On the surface of the bottom of the continental shallows, preserved hollows of river valleys and areas with dune relief were discovered, indicating relatively recent subsidence of land below sea level in the region of the British Isles. The final separation of the archipelago from the mainland and the formation of the modern outlines of its coasts occurred already in post-glacial times.

The folded Paleozoic structures of the British Isles underwent strong vertical dissection, which was especially intense at the end of the Neogene and the beginning of the Anthropocene. These processes created a mosaic topography with alternating blocky mountains and depressions filled with sediments of various ages and origins.

In the first half of the Anthropocene, almost the entire archipelago, with the exception of the southern part of the island of Great Britain, was covered with ice, which left powerful moraine accumulations and had a great influence on the formation of the relief. The last glaciation had a local mountainous character with centers in Scotland, Ireland and Wales.

The coastline of the islands is very dissected by tectonic faults and repeated uplifts and subsidences. Large bays jut into the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland where the surface is flat. On the peninsulas, on the contrary, mountain ranges rise. The structure of the coasts in many places clearly shows a series of marine terraces formed as a result of repeated changes in sea level. The northwest coast of Great Britain and the west coast of Ireland are particularly rugged. In the first case, the fjord type is well expressed, in the second - the rias type. The east coast of Great Britain is less dissected, where a straight, low-lying coast predominates with several bays running deep into the land.

In the north of Great Britain the Scottish Highlands rise. The deep tectonic rift Glen More divides the highlands into two parts: the Northern Highlands and the Grampian Mountains, which contain the highest peak of the islands, the Ben Nevis massif (1343 m). The Caledonian Canal runs along the Glen More depression, connecting the Moray Firth on the north-east coast of Scotland with the Firth of Lorn on the west coast. The extreme northern part of the Highlands, as a result of recent faulting and fragmentation, separated from the island of Great Britain, forming two groups of islands - the Inner and Outer Hebrides.

The North Scottish Highlands as a whole are a horst massif with a leveled surface and individually prominent peaks. Its topography shows traces of the effects of glaciation: piles of boulders, “ram’s foreheads,” and numerous trough valleys. The northwestern fjord coast of Scotland is rocky and has many islands nearby. On the rocky shores of the islands, the surf has developed a variety of bizarre shapes. Particularly famous is Fingal's Grotto on the small island of Staffa, formed in the coastal basalt rocks. At high tide it is flooded with water, and at low tide you can enter it without getting your feet wet.

The South Scottish Upland, 500-600 m high, has a smoother relief, cut through by wide valleys; it contains tarns, accumulations of boulders and moraines. The northern edge of the upland, like the southern edge of the North Scottish Highlands, is formed by faults.

Between the Grampian Mountains and the South Scottish Highlands, in a wide graben lies the Mid-Scotland Plain. Its surface is composed of red sandstones, clays and limestones of the Devonian and Carboniferous, containing coal. These deposits are intruded by outcrops of volcanic rocks that form dome-shaped hills.

To the south of the Southern Highlands, in Northern England, there are highlands and rolling plains bordering the coast. The central part of Northern England is occupied by an anticlinal meridionally elongated uplift of the Pennines, composed of Carboniferous rocks. The arch part of the anticline is eroded, and cuesta ledges have been developed in the slopes, gently descending to the east and west. Adjacent to the Pennines to the north-west is the ancient dome-shaped volcanic massif Cumberland, processed by glaciers. Its slopes are cut through by large cirques, trough valleys diverge in radial directions and form expansions occupied by lakes. Due to its many lakes, the Cumberland Massif received the name Lake District.

The hilly Midland plain adjoins the foothills of the Pennines to the south. Its hills are cut through by valleys and ravines, on the slopes of which strata of red-colored Jurassic and Triassic rocks are exposed.

In the west, far into the sea, the peninsula of Wales juts out, almost entirely occupied by the Cambrian Mountains. The relief of the mountains is smooth, the peaks are rounded, the slopes are gentle. Only the highest parts, like the Snowdon volcanic massif (1085 m), have mountainous terrain formed under the influence of ancient glaciation. The peninsula is separated from the rest of Great Britain by the wide valley of the River Severn.

The Bristol Bay Graben separates the Welsh peninsula from the Cornish peninsula, which forms the southwestern tip of Great Britain. The crystalline massifs of Dartmoor Forest and Exmoor Forest reach the highest heights (500-600 m) on the Cornish peninsula. Recent land subsidence has caused the dismemberment of the coast and the formation of ingression bays, as well as the separation of numerous rocky islands from the coast. The eastern part of the peninsula is occupied by the low-lying Somersetshire plain, composed of Mesozoic rocks.

Cutswold Hills - reaches a height of 300-350 m. From the south of this bush stretches a low strip filled with sandy-clay deposits of Jurassic and Cretaceous age. In the south, the depression gives way to the chalk cuesta plateau of the Chiltern Hills, reaching 250 m in height. It gently slopes south to an elongated depression of the Thames basin, or London basin, filled with thick Cenozoic marine sediments. To the south of the Thames basin, Cretaceous rocks again come to the surface, forming two ridges: the Northern and Southern Downs, steeply plunging to the north, towards the London Basin, and to the south, towards the English Channel. The South Downs forms a high, sparkling white chalk cliff along the coast of southern Great Britain, in the ingression bays of which the country's most important ports are located. The entire interior of the island of Ireland is occupied by the low-lying Central Irish Plain. The plain presents all forms of karst relief and karst hydrography: deep wells, caves and galleries, underground rivers and lakes formed in the Carboniferous limestone strata. On all sides, the Central Irish Plain is surrounded by mountain ranges no more than 1000 m high. In the north there is the Donegal massif, off the north-eastern coast there are the Antrim Mountains, composed of basaltic lavas, under which rocks of various ages are hidden. The northwestern promontory of the Irish coast is filled by the strongly dissected Connaught Mountains; in the southeast the Wicklow Mountains rise along the coast; in the southwest there is the highest part of Ireland - the Kerry Mountains with the peak of Carrantuil (1041 m).

In addition to strong tectonic and erosional dissection, the relief of the mountains of Ireland shows traces of ancient glaciation, which create a sharp, almost alpine relief at low altitudes. This is especially noticeable in the Kerry Mountains, composed of thick layers of ancient red sandstone. On their slopes, huge circuses occupied by lakes have been preserved. The Kerry Mountains drop in cliffs to a deeply dissected coastline. Many minerals have been found and are being developed in the depths of the British Isles: in the Cumberland massif and the mountains of Ireland - lead-zinc ores, and in Cornwall - copper and tin, and in the sedimentary rocks of the Midlands - iron ores. The main mineral wealth of the island of Great Britain is coal. Its deposits are concentrated in three areas: in the Lowlands of Scotland, along the outskirts of the Pennines and in South Wales. Rich oil and gas reserves on the North Sea shelf have already been mentioned. This is now the main oil production area for the UK. Ireland has large reserves of peat, deposits of which are widespread both on the plain and on the flat surfaces of mountain ranges.

The harsh and wet westerly winds that blow throughout the year bring large amounts of moisture to the British Isles. Particularly high precipitation falls on the western slopes of the mountains, where annual amounts exceed 1500 mm, and in some places even 2000 mm. Precipitation falls primarily in the form of light, drizzling rain, with some areas receiving rain almost daily during the winter. In the south-west of Ireland and Cornwall there is no snow throughout the winter, and in other places there are only 10-20 days with snow (in Greenwich about 14 days, and Edinburgh - 20). The eastern and southeastern regions receive 700-800 mm of precipitation per year.

There are less clouds there and the winds are not so harsh.

The annual amplitude of temperature fluctuations in the southwest of Ireland is approximately 7-8 ° C (with an average temperature of the coldest month -) -6, + 7 ° C), in the east of Ireland up to 10-11 ° C, in the southeast of England - 14° C. Almost frost-free winters and relatively cool summers are typical for the entire region, but in the east and southeast frosts are more frequent and summers are hotter than in the northwest. In the London area, temperatures up to +30°C are possible in summer; summer temperatures in the north of Scotland rarely rise to +20°C. The number of sunny days in the southeast reaches 40%, while in the west it is only 17-20%.

Due to the peculiarities of the relief and climate, the river network of islands is very dense. Large rivers - the Severn (310 km), the Thames (334 km), the Shannon (368 km) - are significantly shorter in length than many rivers on the mainland, but they are full-flowing all year round, do not freeze and are therefore very convenient for navigation. Almost all rivers end in deep and wide estuaries, into which large ocean-going ships can freely enter during high tides. This favors the construction of ports at some distance from the sea, in convenient and well-protected places. In the lower reaches of the Thames, 60 km from the sea, is located one of the largest ports in the world - London. In the lower reaches of the Avon River, which flows into the Severn Estuary, there is Bristol, at the confluence of the Merey River into the Irish Sea - Liverpool, in the lower reaches of the Clyde River - the largest city and port of Scotland - Glasgow.

Natural waterways are supplemented by a dense network of canals, the creation of which was favored by the low altitude and weak expression of watersheds between individual river systems. Most of them were built back in the 18th century; at present, many of them are outdated and are hardly used or are suitable only for small ships. Now there are projects to use canals for tourism purposes.

The water energy reserves of the rivers of Great Britain and Ireland are relatively small. Several hydroelectric power stations have been built in Scotland and Wales. In Ireland, a large hydroelectric power station has been created on the Shannon River.

There are no large lakes in the British Isles, but small ones are numerous and picturesque. The largest lake - Lough Neagh - is located in Ireland, its area is about 400 km 2. A significant part of the lakes in Ireland are of karst origin. There are many glacial lakes in the highlands of Scotland, the Cumberland Massif and Wales.

The British Isles are part of the range of broad-leaved forests, but, obviously, were never completely covered with them. In the north of Great Britain, pine and birch forests predominated on podzolic soils, in the southern regions - oak forests, and in some places beech-hornbeam forests on forest brown soils. Currently, forests occupy only 4-5% of the islands' area. In most cases they have been exterminated, but in some places the absence of forests should be considered the result of natural conditions.

A significant part of modern woody vegetation is secondary and, as a rule, consists of artificial plantings. Large areas are occupied by meadows, heaths and swamps. The upper limit of forest vegetation lies on average at an altitude of 200-300 m and nowhere rises above 600 m, since on the surface of mountain ranges strong winds and excess humidity make it difficult for trees to grow.

Currently, the most forests are in the eastern part of Great Britain and the south-east of Ireland. Pure oak forests predominate or with an admixture of other broad-leaved species (beech, ash). Conifers, including some North American and East Asian species, play a large role in artificial plantings. Scots pine groves are found mainly in the eastern part of Scotland.

In some areas, the landscape of the islands gives the impression of being wooded thanks to artificial plantings along roads, around fields and settlements. In many places, only isolated tall and spreading oaks, elms and beeches have survived from the former forests. Large areas are occupied by meadows that are green all year round. There are especially many of them in the southern part of Ireland, for which it received the name of the green island. In some cases they occupy areas that were once forested, in others they represent the original type of vegetation. There are also many sown meadows.

Along the western coasts and on the surface of mountain ranges above 200-300 m, heathlands dominate with a predominance of ordinary and Western European heather, with an admixture of ferns, blueberries and some cereals. In many places, heathlands are specifically preserved as hunting grounds.

In the past, the British Isles had many sedge and especially peat bogs. Large wetlands existed on the island of Great Britain around the Wash (fen) and in the western part of the Central Irish Plain. In some areas of Ireland, peat bogs still dominate the landscape, giving it a characteristic dull brownish-brown color.

However, large, previously swampy areas have now been drained and used for arable land. The previously barren forests have been completely transformed into one of the largest wheat and sugar beet growing areas in the country. Thanks to the mild winters, some evergreens grow in the British Isles. The flora includes, for example, the evergreen holly shrub or holly in the undergrowth of oak forests (Jlex aquifolium). In the south and especially in the southwest, many cultivated Mediterranean plants planted in the ground tolerate winter well without losing foliage. The fauna of the British Isles is very poor. Large animals are now almost never found in their natural state. Only in some places are deer and fallow deer under special protection. Foxes, hedgehogs, and shrews are widespread. There are a lot of rodents everywhere. Wild rabbits and hares are especially common in dry meadows. There are a lot of squirrels in forests and parks.

The avifauna is still quite rich. In less populated areas of Scotland, there are wild pigeons and doves, several species of partridges, and black grouse. There are birds of prey: peregrine falcon, hawk, harrier, etc. On the banks of reservoirs there are many waterfowl - gulls, herons, ducks.

The main commercial species of coastal waters are herring, cod, and flounder.

In general, the British Isles are characterized by a very high degree of human modification of nature. Early industrial development, the abundance of cities, and the development of transport played a big role in this. Nature was especially hard hit in areas adjacent to the Pennines, in the Midlands (“Black Country”), and in South Wales. Suffering from air and water pollution, from overpopulation and other consequences of their activities, the population of the British Isles carefully protects those few corners in within Great Britain and Ireland, which have not yet lost the Attractive features of their nature: the Lake District, the mountains of Cornwall, North-West and South-West Ireland.

The British Isles, an island region that includes Great Britain, Ireland and a large number of small islands and archipelagos, are sometimes combined with Hercynian Europe. Indeed, this is a kind of continuation of the subcontinent of Northern and Central Europe. Ireland separated from the mainland in the Pleistocene, Great Britain - in the post-glacial period. The width of the Pas de Calais Strait is only 32 km. The Hercynian structures in the south of the islands are a continuation of the continental ones, and the folded structures of Caledonian age in the north are a continuation of the Caledonides of the Scandinavian Highlands. The appearance of the Northern Scottish Highlands is reminiscent of mountainous Fennoscandia. The London Basin is essentially an island part of the Paris Basin with the same cuesta system on monoclinal beds of Jurassic and Cretaceous sandstones, limestones and chalk. In all components of nature, the northern part of the British Isles is similar to Fennoscandia, the southern part is similar to Hercynian Europe. However, the island character of the country determines the unity and many unique features of its nature.

The very strong influence of the sea affects literally everything. The nature of even the largest island - Great Britain (230 thousand km 2), which recently separated from the mainland, has pronounced island features.

The region is temperate maritime with high precipitation (1000-3000 mm). Their regime is typical for marine climates (a small winter maximum is expressed). Summer is not hot (11-17°C), winter is warm (3-7°C). unstable, frequent fogs.

Center o. Great Britain is occupied by the low (900 m) Pennine Mountains, and the north is occupied by the blocky ridges of the North Scottish Highlands. A. Ireland is elevated at the edges, and in its central part there is a lowland.

The exogenous relief is dominated by fluvial morphosculpture; the flowing ones have significantly reworked the ancient glacial-accumulative relief, but in the north of the region trough valleys and other exaration forms are well preserved.

The troughs are occupied by rivers, lakes or form fjords. These bays and glacial lakes are similar and sometimes have the same name - “loch” (for example, Loch Broom and Loch Ness, Loch Lomond).

The areas of sea plains are relatively large, and the types of coastal relief are varied. Wherever there are steep coastal cliffs, the sea has developed abrasion ledges, especially unique and picturesque on basalt rocks.

The rivers are short, full-flowing throughout the year, and usually form estuaries at their mouths or flow into fjords. The rivers are connected by a dense network of canals. Estuaries serve as convenient bays for ships to enter.

On the islands, which lie in the zone of deciduous forests, there are many treeless areas, both anthropogenic and natural. The high humidity and strong winds characteristic of the weather conditions of the islands, especially on the western windward slopes, are unfavorable for woody vegetation. Heathland and wetlands (moors) are widespread.

The islands had significant reserves of coal, on which industry developed. Now they are greatly depleted, and gas from the North Sea shelf also serves as their own energy raw material.

The life of the islands' population is closely connected with the sea. In small archipelagos, most people are engaged in marine fishing and its maintenance. There are many fishing towns and villages on the coasts of large islands. Great Britain has long been a famous trading power, with convenient ice-free ports, located on busy sea routes, and possessed a large fleet. One of the largest ports in the world is London, located near the mouth of the river. Thames. A high tidal wave enters the Thames Estuary, allowing ocean-going vessels to rise almost to the outskirts of London.

The nature of the British Isles has been greatly modified by man, mainly through the process of industrial production and urban development. There is also a large share of agricultural land here, mainly serving livestock farming. Forests - secondary and replanted - occupy only 8% of the area of Great Britain and 4% of Ireland. Air pollution, which is aggravated by high climate humidity, is a big problem. The measures taken to solve this problem (replacing fuel types, strict regulation of emissions, etc.), although they yielded positive results, did not solve the entire problem: the level of air pollution, especially in UK cities, is still very high. Residents of the British Isles take good care of those few places where little-changed nature has been preserved - the Lake District in the Cumberland massif, the mountain landscapes of Wales, the Scottish Highlands, northwestern and southwestern Ireland. There are several hundred nature reserves in the UK, designated “places of special scientific interest” (several thousand of them), and 10 national parks organized exclusively for recreational use. There are three national parks and several reserves in Ireland.

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