White Sea: natural features and water temperature in summer. Seas of Russia - White Sea Rivers of the southern part of the White Sea
The White Sea belongs to the Arctic Ocean basin, connects with the World Ocean through the Barents Sea and belongs to the marginal shelf tidal seas. According to the accepted terminology, it does not belong to the Arctic seas since it does not have constant ice cover throughout the year.
Located south and east of the Kola Peninsula between 68º40’ and 63º18 N latitude. and 32º00 and 44º30. The White Sea has a conventional border with the Barents Sea in the north along the line of Cape Svyatoy Nos - Cape Kanin Nos. The sea area is about 90,000 km2, including the islands - 90,800 km2. As shown in Figure 1.1, the White Sea water area is divided into several parts: Basin, Gorlo (strait connecting the White Sea with the Barents Sea), Voronka, Onega Bay, Dvina Bay, Mezen Bay, Kandalaksha Bay. The shores of the White Sea have their own names and are traditionally divided (in counterclockwise order from the coast of the Kola Peninsula) into Tersky, Kandalaksha, Karelian, Pomorsky, Onega, Letniy, Zimny, Mezensky and Kaninsky; sometimes the Mezen coast is divided into the Abramovsky and Konushinsky banks, and part of the Onega coast is called the Lyamitsky coast.
All the shores of the White Sea are indented by numerous streams and small rivers. The largest rivers flowing into the sea are: Northern Dvina, Onega, Mezen, Kuloi, Kem, Vyg. The total river flow on average per year is more than 4% of the total volume of the sea and plays an important role in the development of hydrophysical processes in the sea.
The bottom topography of the White Sea is uneven, the depths vary greatly both between individual areas and within them. The shallowest water is the northern part of the sea. Only in the north of the Voronka the depths in some places reach 60-70 m, while the main part of the water area of the Mezen Bay does not extend beyond the 20 m isobath. This part of the sea also has the most complex bottom topography, which is an extensive shallow water in the south with a hollow-like depression in the axial part along the continuation river bed Mezeni. Before entering the Mezen Bay there are many sand banks located in several ridges and called Northern cats. The size of the Northern Cats and the depths above them change over time under the influence of storms and tidal currents.
The relief of the bottom of the throat is even more rugged. Accumulative and erosional trenches and ridges stretched along the axis of the strait alternate with individual uplifts and closed basins. The longitudinal trench is especially pronounced along the western shore of the strait, where the depths exceed 50 m. The average depths in the Gorlo range from 30 to 50 m.
The presence of such a shallow strait significantly complicates water exchange between the White and Barents Seas. Despite this, water exchange between the two seas plays a huge role in the formation of the hydrophysical, hydrochemical and hydrological fields of the White Sea.
The deepest of the bays are Kandalaksha, with the exception of its top, and Dvina. Onega Bay, separated from the central part of the sea by the ridge of the Solovetsky Islands, is the shallowest, its depths vary from 5 to 25 m.
The bottom topography in the Basin, as well as in the deep-water parts of the Kanlaksha and Dvina bays, is flat, and only in the river delta. The Northern Dvina, as well as on the western coast and the top of Kandalaksha Bay, the bottom is very uneven. The Onega Bay has a complex bottom topography, where the bottom is dotted with numerous rocky banks, corgis, ludas, and shoals. Irregularities in the bottom relief in the flood part manifest themselves in the form of a large number of islands scattered across almost the entire surface of the bay, especially in its western half.
Figure 1.1 shows a map of the bottom relief
Figure 1.1 – Parts and topography of the White Sea bottom (by ).
Climate of the White Sea
The position of the White Sea in the north of the temperate zone and partly beyond the Arctic Circle, belonging to the Arctic Ocean, the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean and the almost continuous ring of land surrounding it determine both marine and continental features in the climate of the sea, which makes the climate of the sea transitional from oceanic to continental .
The influence of the ocean and land is manifested to a greater or lesser extent in all seasons. As the authors concluded based on observations before 1980, winter on the White Sea is long and severe. At this time, an extensive anticyclone is established over the northern part of the European territory of Russia, and intense cyclonic activity develops over the Barents Sea. In this regard, predominantly southwestern winds blow over the sea at a speed of 4–8 m/s. They bring with them cold, cloudy weather with snowfall. In February, the average monthly air temperature over almost the entire sea is −14––15°С, and only in the northern part does it rise to −9°С, since the warming influence of the Atlantic Ocean is felt here. With significant incursions of relatively warm air from the Atlantic, southwesterly winds are observed and the air temperature rises to −6––7°C. The displacement of the anticyclone from the Arctic to the White Sea region causes north-easterly winds, clearing and cooling down to -24 - -26°C, and sometimes very severe frosts.
Summers are cool and moderately humid. At this time, an anticyclone usually sets up over the Barents Sea, and intense cyclonic activity develops to the south and southeast of the White Sea. In such synoptic conditions, northeast winds of force 2–3 prevail over the sea. The sky is completely cloudy, and heavy rain often falls. The air temperature in July averages 8–10°C. Cyclones passing over the Barents Sea change the wind direction over the White Sea to the west and southwest and cause an increase in air temperature to 12–13°C. When an anticyclone sets up over northeastern Europe, southeast winds and clear sunny weather prevail over the sea. The air temperature rises to an average of 17–19°C, and in some cases in the southern part of the sea it can reach 30°C. However, in summer cloudy and cool weather still prevails.
Thus, on the White Sea there is no long-term stable weather throughout almost the entire year, and the seasonal change in prevailing winds is of a monsoon nature. These are important climatic features that significantly affect the hydrological conditions of the sea.
Wind mode.
The frequency of occurrence of different wind directions and its speed is determined by the seasonal state of the atmospheric pressure field. In the cold season, the wind regime on the White Sea, as well as in the entire north of the European part of Russia, is formed under the influence of the Icelandic minimum. In accordance with this, a cyclonic type of circulation dominates over the White Sea, which is observed in 77% of the season.
Much less frequently, the water area is under the influence of an area of high pressure (23%), therefore southern, southwestern winds over the sea are predominant, their total frequency ranges from 40% to 50%. The air flow off the coast and in the bays is influenced by local features of the relief and complex combinations of its forms: capes, steep and rugged coasts. In the Mezen, Onega, and Dvina bays (especially above their peaks), southeast winds are observed more often than in the Basin and Voronka. In Kandalaksha Bay, oriented from southeast to northwest, winds along the bay (southeast) are often observed. On the northern coast, in addition, northern winds are more frequent. And on the south - southwestern and western.
In spring, due to the restructuring of the pressure field, cyclonic activity over the north of the European part of the country weakens, and the frequency of high pressure fields increases. Due to this, northerly winds blow more often. From January to April their frequency almost doubles.
In summer, the intensity of the general atmospheric circulation over the entire Northern Hemisphere further weakens. Atlantic cyclones move along more southern trajectories compared to the cold period. In the western part of the Barents Sea there is a weakly expressed area of high pressure; the north of the European part of the country is in a band of low pressure associated with the warming of the continent. In accordance with this, Arctic air often enters the continent from the north, and northern winds predominate.
Over the relatively cold waters of the White Sea in June-July, surface, local anticyclonic areas are formed.
In the southern part of the sea and on the bays, the average wind speed in northern directions is 5-7 m/s, in Onega Bay - 4-5 m/s.
The beginning of autumn is characterized by an intensification of cyclonic activity, and already from September the frequency of south-west winds characteristic of the winter season increases noticeably. The seasonal frequency of winds is subject to interannual changes in accordance with natural fluctuations in atmospheric circulation.
The highest wind speeds occur in autumn and early winter (October - December). At this time, the sea is not yet covered with ice and has a significant warming effect on the atmosphere. In summer months the speed is 5 – 6 m/s. Annual fluctuations in average monthly speeds in the open sea reach 2 - 3 m/s, in the coastal areas of the southern part of the sea and on bays - less than 1 m/s. In these areas, subject to strong influence of land, in May - June there is a secondary (in Kandalaksha - the main) maximum of average speed due to a large influx of heat and warming up of the land during a long day, which increases the interlayer exchange of air, leading to increased wind. The lowest average monthly wind speed occurs most often in August or July.
In January, speeds increase from the southwest from 5 to 6 m/s, and near the Tersky Coast and Kanin Nos - up to 9 - 10 m/s. The average speed here is determined not only by the seasonal pressure gradient, but also by the seasonal temperature gradient at the land-sea boundary and the coastal topography. In winter, off the eastern coast of the Kola Peninsula, there are large thermal gradients between the cold continent and the relatively warm Barents Sea waters entering the Voronka. Due to the coincidence in direction of the thermal and pressure components of the wind, a zone of increased speeds appears here. In April, the average monthly speed is 5 - 6 m/s (off the coast of the Kola Peninsula and Kanin Nose - 8 m/s or more). In July, the average speed is 5 – 6 m/s. In October it is close to January.
Air temperature
As a rule, eastern and southeastern winds in winter arise when an anticyclone, caused by an ultrapolar invasion, is established over the White Sea. At this time the lowest air temperature is observed.
The coldest month on the White Sea is February (-9...-11ºС) and only in the tops of the Onega and Dvina bays, where the influence of the continent is stronger, is January. The difference between the monthly air temperature in January (-12…-14ºС) and February is 0.5 – 1.0 ºС. December and March are warmer than February by an average of 2 – 4 ºС. The most intense increase in temperature occurs from March to April: by 4 – 5ºС in the north and 6 – 7 ºС near the coasts. The warmest month in the southern half of the sea is July (12 - 15 ºС), and in the northern half it is August (9 - 10 ºС).
Hydrological regime
The hydrological regime of the White Sea is determined by its geographical location - belonging to the Arctic Ocean, location with a subpolar climate zone, the possibility of relatively warm and salty waters of the Barents Sea penetrating into the sea, a large volume of river flow, amounting annually to 4% of the sea volume, as well as powerful tidal forces. currents.
Water temperature and salinity
A characteristic feature of the thermohaline structure of the White Sea waters is the presence of two types of vertical distribution of temperature and salinity: uniform in Voronka, Gorlo, Mezen and Onega bays and stratified in the Basin, Dvina and Kandalaksha bays.
An idea of the two types of vertical structure of sea waters is given in Fig. 1.1 which shows the distribution of temperature and salinity from Cape Svyatoy Nos to Kandalaksha. It can be seen that in the Funnel and most of the Throat the waters are homogeneous from the surface to the bottom. Even the salinity front separating the waters of the Barents Sea from the waters of the White Sea is strictly vertical. In the Gorla region adjacent to the Basin, a thermal front is observed, separating mixed waters from stratified ones.
The upper quasi-homogeneous layer, depending on the area, can vary from tens of meters (in June - July) to 60 m (in October - December).
Small-scale variability.
Small-scale variability of water temperature reaches a maximum in the area of the Solovetsky frontal zone, and salinity - near the Kaninskaya.
Mesoscale variability.
In the White Sea, for two types of vertical distribution of thermohaline characteristics, the formation of mesoscale oscillations occurs under the influence of various physical reasons. In areas with waters of the Gorlovka type, such fluctuations are caused by horizontal displacements of water masses during the tidal cycle.
Fluctuations reach their greatest values near the Gorlovka Front. Salinity is characterized by two maximums: at the Gorlovka and Kanin fronts. The amplitude of fluctuations in the Throat at horizons of 0, 30, 60 m is respectively 0.5 for temperature; 0.4; 0.5 ºС and for salinity 0.74; 0.63; 0.68‰.
The contribution of mesoscale variability to the general fluctuations in temperature and salinity of the White Sea waters reaches its greatest values at depths corresponding to the position of the thermohalocline, and on the surface and near the bottom horizons it is approximately the same.
Seasonal variability.
Horizon 0 m.
In all seasons, water temperature tends to increase in the direction from northeast to southwest, with the exception of winter, when the influx of warm Barents Sea waters and intense cooling of the White Sea in its continental part form the opposite picture. water temperature contrasts between the northern and southern parts of the sea can reach in spring, summer, autumn, winter, respectively 4; 8; 2; 3ºС, salinity – in spring, summer, autumn, respectively 9; 8.5; 9.5‰.
The greatest gradients of T and S throughout the year are observed in the same areas of the sea, located near the Solovetsky Islands, in the Dvina and Kandalaksha bays, on the border of Gorlo and the Basin, as well as off the Kaninsky coast. Temperature and salinity differences here reach 1ºС/km and 1.2‰/km.
Frontal zones delimit areas of mixed and stratified river and sea waters. The most pronounced and important for the formation of the thermal structure of the White Sea waters is the frontal zone of the Gorlo. Northeast of this zone, in the area of mixed waters, the maximum temperature occurs at the end of August at the beginning, almost a month later than the occurrence of the maximum in the area of stratified waters, located southwest of the front. At the same time, salinity maxima on both sides of the front are observed in October for mixed waters and in November for stratified waters. This indicates the different influence of advection on the formation of the T and S fields.
In early spring (mid-May) in the area of the Solovetsky Islands, in the Kandalaksha Bay near the Tersky Coast, as well as along the Kaninsky Coast, there are localized zones with negative temperature anomalies. With the exception of the last region, they show increased salinity values. In the first two zones with T and S anomalies, apparently, they are associated with frontal upwelling. The release of the cold waters of the eastern part of the Funnel to the surface, which are usually observed here on the bottom horizons, is associated with the divergence of currents, forming a circulation with cyclonic vorticity to the north of this area, and with anticyclonic vorticity to the south.
Increased water temperatures in spring at the tops of bays are due to the influx of warm river waters. The difference between the temperature of the tops of the bays and the open part of the sea is about 1.5 ºС; salinity at the tops of the bays decreases to 16‰.
On the sea surface there is a zone with elevated temperatures in the area of the so-called cold pole. In the spring it can be traced according to the data from the Tetrino-Lopshenga and Cape Zimnegorsky sections - about. Ivanovy Ludy. Its center is located in the area of stations 67, 66,121 (see Fig. 1.2 a). As a rule, thin lenses of water desalinated to 21 - 22‰ and relatively warm are observed here, which is typical for the water masses of bays. The formation of these lenses can be explained by meandering along the frontal flow and the separation of rings from the front, delimiting different masses of water. The front of the Dvina Bay, which was very developed at that time, was oriented from the Letniy Shore to Cape Zimnegorskoye. On the side of the Dvina Bay it has waters heated to 4ºС and desalinated to 21‰, while on the side of the Basin the waters are colder (2ºС) and salty (26 – 27‰). Due to the pressure gradient across the front, along-frontal currents are formed, directed towards the Throat. Therefore, warm anticyclonic eddies will form on the side of the Basin, and cold cyclonic eddies on the side of the Dvina Bay.
In particular, the anticyclonic vorticity of the warm ring can be judged by the characteristic deepening of the T and S isolines at stations 67,66,121. In the spring, these stations are located at the left end of the core of the Dvina waters, spreading into the Gorlo. A little further into the Basin, namely in the area of stations 122 and 123, the thermohalocline pinches out onto the surface (i.e., the appearance of a front), which was formed under the influence of desalinated waters of the bay. Here, probably, as a result of frontal upwelling, a cold pole is formed. The temperature there is 1 – 2ºС lower than in the central part of the Basin and 3 – 4ºС lower than in the core of the Dvina waters. Salinity in the cold pole increases and exceeds the salinity of the open part of the sea by 1.5‰, and the Dvina waters by 7–8‰, and sometimes more.
Judging by the location of the isotherms in June, warm (about 7ºC) waters flow into the Basin from the Dvina Bay. The heat center that formed in May in the area of stations 66 and 67 moved closer to the Summer Coast and moved deeper into the Basin. The waters in its center have a temperature of about 8 – 8.5ºС. The central part of the Basin is occupied by waters with a temperature of 6ºС, which are separated from the waters of the bays and Gorlo by sharpened frontal zones. Another area of cold water, also associated with frontal upwelling, is located at the entrance to Kandalaksha Bay. The mentioned fronts are determined to a greater extent by the difference in salinity of the contacting water masses rather than by temperature.
Thermohaline fields take on a smoother appearance in July. At the tops of the bays adjacent to the Basin, the temperature rises to 12 – 13ºС. In the Basin it has an average value of about 10.5 ºС, and north of the Gorlovka Front it drops to 5 – 6ºС. The heat core that formed in May at the exit from the Dvina Bay is now observed in the very center of the Basin and has a temperature of about 11ºC. The heat pole is probably located here. This hot spot is associated primarily with horizontal water circulation, while cold zones are associated with vertical frontal movements. The same applies to the Solovetsky negative anomaly, which in July has a temperature below 8.5ºC.
In autumn, the temperature field becomes gradient-free, then, due to the autumn flood, the salinity gradients are quite significant, especially in the Dvina frontal zone, which is formed at this time exclusively due to salinity.
Depth of the intermediate warm layer.
The PTS is formed in early winter (December – January) as a result of the spread of cooled Barents Sea waters from the Gorlo with a temperature of about -0.8ºС and a salinity of 28.8‰.
In spring, there is a general tendency for the PTS core to deepen from the southeast to the northwest. So, on the border of the Basin and the Dvina Bay, it is located at a horizon of about 40 - 50 m. However, as we move towards the central part of the Basin, the depth increases to 55 m in its center. In the deep-water areas of Kandalaksha Bay, the core is already located at a depth of about 60 m. In summer, a general deepening of the PTS occurs by 10–15 m compared to spring.
Horizon 100 m.
The temperature and salinity fields reflect the conditions of deep waters: according to observations, from 100 m to the bottom, the main features of thermohaline fields remain unchanged.
The average temperature and salinity of water at a horizon of 100 m in spring is 1.2 ºС and 29‰. In all seasons, thermohaline fields are weakly contrasting, the maximum differences being less than 0.5 ºС and 0.3‰.
Characteristic of the entire sea is a pronounced minimum salinity in May–June. This is primarily due to the spring flood; water desalination due to melting plays a minor role.
In the surface zone, thermohaline fields are formed as a result of horizontal and vertical advection of heat and salts, as well as processes of vertical turbulent mixing, and in the intermediate and bottom layers mainly as a result of horizontal redistribution of water masses of Barents Sea origin.
Vertical structure of waters.
In the White Sea, three main types of vertical water structure can be distinguished: stratified, mixed and frontal. In the frontal zones, depending on the season, the main appearance is modified. The boundaries of areas that have the same vertical structure are subject to sharp seasonal variability.
Seasonal variability of the thermohaline structure of the deep-sea part of the sea, concentrated mainly in the upper 50-meter layer, is determined by various processes throughout the year. In summer, turbulent mixing in the surface layer becomes important. In autumn and winter, advective and vertical turbulent processes, together with convection, are of equal importance.
Water masses.
The main sources of formation of water masses are the Barents Sea and continental waters. The throat of the White Sea is occupied by a water mass characterized by constant depth characteristics, which is a consequence of intense mixing in this area.
in winter Three water masses are distinguished: the Barents Sea, Voronki and Gorla. The Barents Sea occupy the entire western half of the Funnel, extending south all the way to Cape Tersko-Orlovsky-Tonkiy. These are homogeneous, well-mixed waters with a temperature of 2.18ºС and a salinity of 34.28‰. The waters of the eastern part of the Funnel are separated into a separate water mass of the Funnel. It is formed as a result of mixing the waters of the Gorlo, Barents Sea and Mezen Bay in the area from the river. Kiya to Kanin Nos metro station. On the section Kanin Nos Cape - Svyatoy Nos Cape, the Voronka water mass can be traced only at the Kaninsky coast to a depth of 25 m, and on the beam of Bolshoy Gorodetsky Cape its distribution zone increases in depth (up to 40 m) and in area. The layer of this water mass is thin, so it cools down greatly to a temperature of 1.6 - 1.7ºС. The influx of water from the Mezen Bay causes its low salinity: 31 – 32 ‰.
Thus, in the eastern part of the Funnel, cooled and desalinated (compared to the Barents Sea) waters are formed. When ice forms, they become salinized and acquire a salinity of 33‰ by the end of winter. Part of the Barents Sea waters, transforming in the bottom layers, does not turn north, but, following the depressions of the bottom along the Terek coast, rushes south in the form of a feeding current, which can be traced throughout the Gorlo. Despite the strong tidal mixing in this area and significant transformation, the waters of the Barents Sea are identified by the maximum temperature (- 0.87 ... - 0.95ºС) and salinity (28.9 - 29.2‰) in the bottom horizons up to the exit from the Gorlo in the pool. In the Gorlo of the White Sea, two water masses are distinguished - the Gorla itself (on the surface) and the Barents Sea (at the bottom). Characteristic of the waters of Gorlo is a gradual increase in salinity towards Voronka from 26.4‰ at Cape Zimnegorsky to 28.7‰ at the island. Morzhovets. The temperature of Gorlovka waters in winter is between 1.4 and 1.0 ºС below zero. There is practically no vertical stratification in the water mass of the Gorla, which indicates complete mixing. So in winter, in the Voronka and Gorlo of the White Sea, the Barents Sea waters lie in the bottom horizons throughout the Gorlo. These waters, under the influence of the feeding current, enter the Basin and, due to their greater density, sink into its deeper parts. The eastern part of the Funnel is filled by the Funnel mass itself, the formation and maximum development of which occurs in winter.
in spring In the White Sea there are eight water masses: the Barents Sea, Gorlovka, Voronki, the upper layers of the Basin, intermediate, deep, desalinated waters of bays and weakly transformed river waters. Due to the increase in river flow, river waters begin to play a major role in the hydrological structure of the sea. The tops of the Dvina and Onega bays are occupied by slightly transformed river waters with a temperature of 8.5ºС and a salinity of 4.3 – 7.6‰. The lower limit of their penetration is a horizon of 5 m.
Mixing with the water mass of the upper layers of the Basin, river waters form the desalinated water mass of the bays. Warmed up to 7.2ºС and with a salinity of 21 - 22 ‰, these waters occupy a surface layer up to 10 m thick, gradually wedging out in the direction of the exits from the bays. In addition, the waters of the Dvina Bay penetrate in the surface horizons into Gorlo up to Cape Veprevsky.
Throughout the entire water area of the Basin, down to a depth of 25 m, there is a surface water mass of the Basin with a temperature of 6.4 – 7.0ºС and a salinity of 26.6‰. In the layer between the 10 and 25 m horizons, it penetrates into the Dvina and Kandalaksha bays.
In the Basin, Dvina and Kandalaksha bays, a core of intermediate water mass is located at a depth of about 40 m. Its upper limit is 30 m, lower – 60 m. T, S-values of this water mass: temperature – 0.4…- 0.8ºС and salinity 28.3 – 28.7‰, which approximately corresponds to the temperature and salinity of the Barents Sea, feeding current, at the exit from the Gorlo to the Basin at the beginning of winter. The formation of this water mass occurs in December – January. Deep waters form at the end of winter - beginning of spring, when cooling in the Throat reaches its maximum development. The temperature of deep waters is significantly lower than that of intermediate masses. T,S-index of deep water mass: - 1.4ºС and 29.8 – 30.0‰. These denser waters fill the deep parts of the Basin and Kandalaksha Bay, starting from a horizon of 100 m to the bottom. The Gorlovka water mass occupies the entire Gorlo and the southern part of the Funnel. Its vertically homogeneous waters are characterized by a temperature of 1.0 – 1.7ºС and a salinity of 28.5 – 28.8‰. They are separated from the waters of the Barents Sea by a frontal zone, which can be conditionally drawn from Cape Tersko-Orlovsky to the river. Shoinu.
The water mass of the Funnel in spring is present only in the bottom horizons of the eastern part of the Funnel. Due to the fact that it was formed in winter, its waters differ sharply from the surrounding Barents Sea waters in their low temperature (-1.1ºС).
In the structure of the Basin’s waters, three types of water masses are clearly expressed: in the layer 0–20 m is the water mass of the upper layers of the Basin, at the 40 m horizon there is a core of intermediate water mass, and starting from 100 m and deeper, deep waters lie.
Distribution of water masses in the White Sea in summer.
Significant summer warming enhances stratification and increases gradients in the thermocline. In summer, six water masses can be distinguished: the Barents Sea, the Gorla, the surface of the Basin, the intermediate, the deep, and the desalinated waters of the bays.
The water mass of the Funnel completely disappears, the core of the intermediate water mass is buried.
in autumn The same water masses are released in the White Sea as in summer. The autumn water structure is characterized by the presence of an inversion layer in the upper horizons, which is due to the onset of winter convection.
To summarize, we note that the following water masses are distinguished in the White Sea: Barents Sea, Gorla, Voronki, upper layers of the Basin, intermediate, deep, desalinated bay waters and weakly transformed river waters. The characteristics of these water masses and their spatial distribution have seasonal variability.
The formation of intermediate water mass occurs at the beginning of winter, and deep water mass occurs at the end of winter - beginning of spring. In some years, these two types of water mix with surface water due to dynamic processes, as a result of which they acquire characteristics that are unusual for them.
The formation of water masses is greatly influenced by mixing processes. In frequency, tidal mixing determines the depth of surface water.
Related information.
The White Sea is the only sea in the Arctic Ocean that lies almost entirely south of the Arctic Circle. With a complex coastline, the White Sea is deeply cut into the continent. It has natural land borders, and is only separated from the Barents Sea by a conventional border - the line of Cape Svyatoy Nos on the Kola Peninsula - Cape Kanin Nos.
The White Sea is an inland sea. Its area is 90.1 thousand km 2, volume - 6 thousand km 3, average depth - 67 m, greatest depth - 350 m.
The shores of the White Sea, different in external shape and landscape, have local names - Summer Coast, Winter Coast, Tersky Coast, etc. and belong to various geomorphological types.
Landscapes of the White Sea
According to the shape of the coastline and the nature of the bottom topography in the sea, seven regions are distinguished: Voronka, Gorlo, Basin and bays: Mezensky, Dvinsky, Onega and Kandalaksha.
Climate
The climate of the White Sea is transitional from oceanic to continental. Winter is long and harsh. At this time, an extensive anticyclone is established over the northern part of the European territory of Russia, and intense cyclonic activity develops over the Barents Sea. In this regard, predominantly southwestern winds blow at a speed of 4-8 m/s on the White Sea. They bring with them cold, cloudy weather with snowfalls. In February, the average monthly air temperature in almost the entire sea is 14-15°, and only in the northern part, under the influence of air masses brought from the Atlantic Ocean, does it rise to -9°. With significant intrusions of relatively warm air from the Atlantic, southwesterly winds are observed, and the air temperature rises to –6-7°. The displacement of the anticyclone from the Arctic to the White Sea region causes north-eastern winds, cooling down to –24-26°, and sometimes very severe frosts.
Summers are cool and moderately humid. At this time, an anticyclone is established over the Barents Sea, and intense cyclonic activity develops to the south and southeast of the sea.
In such synoptic conditions, northeast winds with a force of 2-3 prevail over the sea. The sky becomes cloudy and heavy rain often falls. The air temperature in July averages 8-10°. Cyclones passing over the Barents Sea change the wind direction over the White Sea to the west and southwest and cause an increase in air temperature to 12-13°. When an anticyclone sets up over North-Eastern Europe, mainly south-eastern winds blow over the sea, and clear, sunny weather sets in. The air temperature rises to an average of 17-19°, and in some cases in the southern part of the sea it can reach 30°. However, in summer cloudy and cool weather still prevails. Thus, on the White Sea there is no long-term stable weather throughout almost the entire year, and the seasonal change in prevailing winds is of a monsoon nature.
Water temperature and salinity
The structure of the White Sea waters is formed under the influence mainly of desalination by continental runoff and water exchange with the Barents Sea, as well as tidal mixing (especially in the Gorlo and Mezen Bay) and winter vertical circulation. Here the Barents Sea waters are distinguished (in their pure form they are presented only in Voronka), the desalinated waters of the tops of the bays, the waters of the upper layers of the Basin, the deep waters of the Basin, and the waters of the Gorlo.
In shallow-water (up to depths of 50 m) parts of the sea, the existence of two water masses has been established. In the deep areas of the Basin and Kandalaksha Bay, a surface water mass can be traced that is significantly warmed and desalinated in summer; intermediate (with temperature –0.7-1° and salinity 28.5-29‰); deep (highly saline, with a temperature close to freezing). The noted water structure is a characteristic hydrological feature of the White Sea.
The distribution of water temperature at the surface and in depth is characterized by great diversity and significant seasonal variability.
In winter, the water temperature on the surface is equal to freezing temperature, i.e. –0.5-0.7° in the bays, –1.3° in the Basin and reaches –1.9° in the Gorlo and the northern part of the sea. These differences are related to the magnitude of salinity.
In the Kandalaksha Nature Reserve
In the spring, after the sea is freed from ice, the water surface quickly heats up. In summer, the surface of relatively shallow bays is best warmed up. The water temperature on the surface of Kandalaksha Bay in August is on average 14-15°, in the Basin 12-13°. The lowest surface temperatures are observed in Voronka and Gorlo, where, as a result of strong mixing, the temperature drops to 7-8°.
In autumn, the sea cools quickly, and spatial differences in temperature are smoothed out.
In winter, the temperature close to the surface remains up to 30-45 m, then it rises slightly to a horizon of 75-100 m. The presence of a warm intermediate layer is a characteristic feature of the White Sea. Below it, the temperature decreases, and from horizons of 130-140 m to the bottom it becomes equal to –1.4°. In spring, the sea surface warms up to a horizon of 20 m. From here the temperature drops sharply (to negative values) to a horizon of 50-60 m.
Water temperature on the surface of the White Sea in summer
In summer, the thickness of the heated layer increases to 30-40 m, the temperature differs little from the surface. From these horizons, the temperature decreases first abruptly, and then more smoothly, and at a horizon of 130-140 m it reaches –1.4°.
In autumn, cooling extends to horizons of 15-20 m, and the temperature in this layer evens out. From here to horizons of 90-100 m, the water temperature is slightly higher than in the surface layer, since the heat accumulated over the summer is still retained in the subsurface (20-100 m) horizons.
The rivers flowing into the White Sea annually bring an average of about 215 km 3 of fresh water. More than 3/4 of the total flow comes from rivers flowing into the Onega, Dvina and Mezen bays. In high-water years, the Northern Dvina contributes about 170 km 3 , Mezen - 38, Onega - 27 km 3 of water per year. The Kem, which flows into the western coast, gives 12 km 3 and Vyg - 11 km 3 of water per year. Other rivers provide only 9% of the flow.
Large rivers discharge 60-70% of their water in the spring. Due to the natural regulation of many small coastal rivers by lakes, the distribution of their flow throughout the year occurs more or less evenly. The maximum flow is observed in spring and amounts to 40% of the annual flow. For the sea as a whole, the maximum flow occurs in May, and the minimum in February - March.
Fresh water entering the White Sea increases its water level, and excess water flows through the Gorlo and Voronka into the Barents Sea. Due to the difference in the densities of the waters of the White and Barents Seas, a current from the Barents Sea also arises. There is an exchange of water between these seas, but only in the upper layers (up to 40-50 m), since the White Sea basin is separated from the Barents Sea by an underwater threshold (with the greatest depths of 40 m), located at the exit from the Gorlo. Approximately 2,200 km 3 of water flows out of the White Sea annually, and about 2,000 km 3 flows in.
Consequently, more than 2/3 of the entire mass of deep (below 50 m) White Sea water is renewed in a year. At the exit from the Dvina Bay, the cold deep layers are located much closer to the surface than in other areas of the Basin. The temperature of 0° is observed here only 12-15 m from the surface. K. M. Deryugin (1928) called this area the “pole of cold.” Its formation is explained by the cyclonic circulation of surface waters, in the center of which deep water rises. The “pole of cold” is very pronounced in summer. In autumn-winter, with the development of vertical circulation, it is less noticeable. When leaving Kandalaksha Bay, the picture is the opposite: warm waters sink deep down. Zero temperature is observed at the 65 m horizon, while in other places on this horizon the temperature is usually negative. K.M. Deryugin called this region the “pole of heat.” Its existence is associated with the influence of the influx of homogeneous and warmer deep waters from the Gorlo compared to the surrounding ones. This is confirmed by an increase in the thickness of surface warm waters in the region of the “heat pole” in the fall, when the influx of deep waters from the Gorlo becomes more intense.
There is a fundamentally different distribution of water temperature in the Throat, where external thermal influences are perceived by the entire mass of water as one due to good mixing.
The salinity of the White Sea is slightly lower than the average salinity of the ocean. Its values are unevenly distributed on the sea surface, which is associated with the location of river flow, the flow of water from the Barents Sea, and the transfer of water by sea currents. Salinity increases from the tops of the bays to the central part of the Basin and with depth, although local variations are observed in each season.
In winter, the salinity on the surface is increased. In the Gorlo and Voronka it is 29-30‰, and in the Basin - 27.5-28‰. River mouth areas are the most desalinated. In the Basin, surface salinity values are maintained up to horizons of 30-40 m, from where they first sharply and then gradually increase towards the bottom.
In spring, surface waters are significantly desalinated (up to 23‰, and in the Dvina Bay - up to 10‰) in the east and much less (up to - 27‰) in the west. Reduced salinity is observed in a layer of 5-10 m, below it sharply increases to horizons of 20-30 m, and then gradually increases towards the bottom.
Salinity on the surface of the White Sea in summer
In summer, surface salinity is reduced. In the Basin, desalination extends to horizons of 10-20 m, from here the salinity first sharply and then gradually increases to the bottom. In the bays, only the upper 5-meter layer is desalinated, which is associated with compensatory flows that compensate for the loss of water carried out by runoff surface currents. Due to the different thickness of the layer of low salinity in the bays and in the Basin, the maximum desalination of the entire mass of water to the bottom is confined to the latter. This means that in the central part of the Basin, fresh waters are distributed throughout the entire thickness of the waters, which represents a unique hydrological feature of the White Sea.
In autumn, salinity on the surface increases, which is associated with a reduction in river flow and the beginning of ice formation. In the Basin, up to horizons of 30-40 m, it is approximately the same, and then the salinity increases to the bottom. In Gorlo, Onega and Mezen bays, as a result of tidal mixing, the vertical distribution of salinity is more uniform throughout the year.
The density of the White Sea water primarily determines the salinity. In autumn and winter, the highest density is observed in Voronka, Gorlo and in the central part of the Basin. In summer the density is reduced. The density increases quite sharply with depth following the vertical distribution of salinity. This creates a stable stratification of waters, which makes wind mixing difficult. Its depth during strong autumn-winter storms is approximately 15-20 m, and in the spring-summer season mixing is limited to horizons of 10-12 m.
Despite the strong cooling in autumn and winter and intense ice formation, convection in most of the sea extends only to horizons of 50-60 m. It penetrates somewhat deeper (80-100 m) near the Gorlo, which is facilitated by intense turbulence caused by strong tidal currents. The limited depth of distribution of autumn-winter convection is a characteristic hydrological feature of the White Sea. However, its deep and bottom waters are not stagnant. The deep waters of the Basin are formed in winter as a result of mixing with waters coming from the Throat of the White Sea. During ice formation, the salinity and density of mixed waters increase, and they flow down the slopes of the bottom from the Gorlo into the bottom horizons of the Basin.
Bottom relief
The deepest areas of the sea are the Basin and Kandalaksha Bay, where the maximum depth of the sea is located. The depths decrease quite smoothly from the Basin (depth about 200 m) to the top of the Dvina Bay. The bottom of the shallow Onega Bay is slightly elevated above the bowl of the Basin. The bottom of the Sea Throat is an underwater trench about 50 m deep, stretched along the strait somewhat closer to the Tersky coast.
The northern part of the sea is the shallowest. The bottom here is very uneven (especially near the Kaninsky coast), the depths do not exceed 50 m.
The Mezen Bay area is dotted with many very mobile sand banks (2-5 m), grouped into several ridges, known as Northern Cats. Due to the shallowness of the northern part and the Gorlo, water exchange between the White Sea and the Barents Sea is difficult, which affects its hydrological conditions.
Bottom topography and currents of the White Sea
Currents
The horizontal circulation of the White Sea waters is influenced by wind, river runoff, tides and compensation flows. The resulting movement of the White Sea waters occurs counterclockwise, which is typical for the seas of the northern hemisphere.
Since the river flow is concentrated mainly at the tops of the bays, a waste current appears here, directed into the open part of the Basin. Under the influence of the Coriolis force, the moving waters are pressed against the right bank and flow from the Dvina Bay along the Zimny Coast to Gorlo. Near the Kola coast there is a current from Gorlo to the Kandalaksha Bay, then along the Karelian coast to the Onega Bay and flows out of it at its right bank. Before leaving the bays in the Basin, weak cyclonic gyres are created between waters moving in opposite directions. These gyres cause anticyclonic movement of water between them. Around the Solovetsky Islands, the movement of waters can be traced clockwise. The speeds of surface currents are low and usually equal to 10-15 cm/s; in narrow areas and at capes they reach 30-40 cm/s. Tidal currents have much higher speeds in some areas. In Gorlo and Mezen Bay they reach 250 cm/s, in Kandalaksha Bay - 30-35 and Onega Bay - 80-100 cm/s. In the Basin, the speed of tidal currents is lower than in the bays.
In the White Sea, a tidal wave from the Barents Sea propagates along the axis of the Funnel to the top of the Mezen Bay. Passing across the entrance to the Throat, it causes a wave that enters through the Throat into the Pool and is reflected. When the incoming and reflected waves are added, a standing wave is formed, which forms tides in the Throat and the White Sea Basin. They have a regular semi-diurnal character. The highest tide (about 7 m) is observed in the Mezen Bay, near the Kaninsky coast, near Voronka and near the island. Sosnowiec. In Kandalaksha Bay, the tide height exceeds 3 m, and in the central regions of the Basin, Dvina and Onega bays, it is even less.
The tidal wave travels long distances up rivers. In the Northern Dvina, for example, the tide is noticeable 120 km from the mouth.
At the mouth of the Mezen, which is wide open to the sea, the tide delays the river flow and forms a high wave, which, like a wall of water, moves up the river. This phenomenon, known in other parts of the world as "mascare, bor", is called overrun here.
The strongest waves (4-5 points or more) are observed in October - November in the northern part and in the Throat of the sea. However, the small size of the reservoir does not allow large waves to develop. In the White Sea, waves up to 1 m high prevail. Occasionally they reach a height of 3 m, but as an exception there are 5 m. The sea is calmest in the second half of summer, when waves of 1-3 points prevail.
The level of the White Sea experiences non-periodic surge changes. The greatest surges are observed in the autumn-winter season with north-western and north-eastern winds. The level rise can reach 75-90 cm. The strongest surges are observed in winter and spring with southwestern winds. The level at this time drops to 50-75 cm. As for the seasonal variation of the level, in winter it is the lowest, from spring to summer it rises slightly and grows relatively quickly from summer to autumn. It reaches its highest position in October. In the mouth areas of large rivers, seasonal level fluctuations are determined mainly by the distribution of river flow throughout the year.
Ice cover
Every winter the White Sea is covered with ice, and in the spring it completely disappears, so the sea is classified as a sea with seasonal ice cover. The earliest ice appears (around the end of October) at the mouth of the Mezen, and the latest (in January) at the Tersky coast of Voronka and Gorlo. The ice of the White Sea consists of 90% floating ice. A very significant feature of the ice regime of the White Sea is the constant removal of ice into the Barents Sea. Associated with it are the constantly forming polynyas in the middle of winter, which are quickly covered by young ice.
Ice formation in the sea prevails over melting, which affects the thermal state of the sea. As a rule, floating ice has a thickness of 35-40 cm, but in severe winters it can reach 135 and even 150 cm. Fast ice in the White Sea occupies a very small area. Its width does not exceed 1 km. The earliest (at the end of March) the ice disappears in Voronka. By the end of May, sometimes by mid-June, the entire sea is usually free of ice.
Economic importance
Underwater world of the White Sea
The White Sea is home to more than 50 species of fish. The most common include navaga, herring, cod, smelt, White Sea cod, and some types of flounder. The most valuable are salmon and brown trout. Mainly navaga and cod are caught in the sea; herring and White Sea cod are caught in smaller quantities.
The White Sea, located on the northern edge of the European part of Russia, covers an area of 90 thousand km².
It belongs to the seas of the Arctic Ocean, but it is the only one of the Arctic seas that is almost entirely located south of the Arctic Circle.
Among the Pomors, and then among geographers, this has long been the custom: the northern part of the White Sea is called the Funnel, and the narrow part to the south is called the Throat.
In the Throat and Funnel of the White Sea, navigation requires great skill from sailors. Strong tidal fluctuations in water levels occur here.
Particularly noteworthy are the tides in the Mezen Bay, where the total range of level fluctuations can reach 9 meters. There are no such large fluctuations in any other sea of the Arctic Ocean. Among the seas of the Russian Federation after, Beloe ranks second in this regard. Such large level fluctuations are associated with strong currents moving either south or north.
Modern ships cope with these currents, but sailing ships in earlier times had a hard time among the rapidly rushing jets. There were often cases when the currents picked up the ship and threw it onto the coastal stones.
For a long time, the Throat of the White Sea acquired the reputation of a “ship graveyard” among seafarers, which has not been forgotten to this day. At the entrance to Gorlo there is the island of Morzhovets. Its shore is noticeably destroyed by fast currents and waves. For example, from 1833 to 1865 the coast retreated by 502 meters, and the adjacent area from 1860 to 1881 - by 512 meters. If the destruction of the island continues at such a speed, then in a thousand years there will be only a sandbank in place of the island.
Of course, if the shores were rocky, they would erode much more slowly. But the island is composed of relatively loose sandy-clayey sediments, possibly accumulated during the Ice Age. There are similar areas on the Kaninsky coast of the White Sea. They also collapse.
On the southern coast of the Kola Peninsula, in some places there are placers of well-rounded, washed and sorted sand. Quartz and feldspar, crushed by winds and water, formed loose bare dunes. These sands are remarkable in that, if they are disturbed by anything, they begin to sound, making whistling sounds. Such sands, in which sound waves arise during movements, are called “singing”. In the Soviet Union we also have them on the Riga seaside. They do not always respond so energetically to the arrival of a visitor or to a gust of wind. Usually these sands “sing” only in dry weather shortly after rain. The most important and interesting feature of the White Sea waters is the large influx of fresh river waters.
The underwater world of the White Sea is beautiful and rich.
This is the result of the accumulation of a large amount of river water in the White Sea. A number of large rivers flow here: Northern Dvina, Mezen, Onega, Vyg, Niva and others. Meanwhile, the sea area is small. The layer of river water, if it could be retained in the sea, would be about 4 meters per year - even minus the evaporated water. There is no such abundance of fresh water in any other sea. Meanwhile, the salinity of sea water - about 30 ppm - is not the lowest.
How to explain this? Obviously, the upper layer, which has a low density, does not mix well with the lower, heavier layers and seems to slide along them towards the exit. The salty Barents Sea water comes towards us and fills the depressions. If this water did not come, the White Sea would quickly become desalinated.
It was not easy to identify the mechanism of all these oncoming flows and calculate the amount of river water. But Soviet researchers, who studied the sea in parallel with the study of land, rivers and climate, overcame all difficulties. As a result, the “fresh balance” of the White Sea waters was calculated.
It turned out that the strong mixing of water in the Throat plays a huge role in the regime of the sea and life in it. It is because of it that the entire deep part of the White Sea is filled with homogeneous water, which has the same negative temperature in both winter and summer - 1.4 degrees. This water is formed in the Gorlo in winter and slides along the slope of the bottom into the Basin - the central part of the sea. From the calculations of our scientists it is clear that every year almost half of the total volume of water in the sea is replaced by new water. Perhaps only the Barents Sea can compete with the White Sea in this regard.
For the winter, a large number of seals swim into the White Sea and settle on the islands, especially many on the island of Morzhovets. In the second half of winter, when seals go out onto the ice and form giant rookeries with their cubs. They are usually not afraid of people and you can easily get close to them.
The White Sea is the only sea in the Arctic Ocean located south of the Arctic Circle. Moreover, it is completely cut into the land, and only in the north is it connected to the Barents Sea. The coastline of the sea forms many bays, the largest of which are: Kandalaksha Bay, Onega, Dvinsk and Mezen Bay. There are many islands on the White Sea. The most famous are the Solovetsky Islands, Oleniy Island, Velikiy Island and Morzhovets Island. The sea is shallow, the average depth of the basin is about 200 m. Kandalaksha Bay is the deepest - 300 m. Dvina Bay is 93 km long. has a depth of up to 120 m, which decreases towards the mouth of the Northern Dvina.
The climate is quite harsh. Winter is long and cold. The temperature in winter is about -15°C, but sometimes drops to -25°C. Summer is only a little over two months long and quite cool. In summer it often rains, the average temperature is 18°C, but sometimes it stays at 8-10°C even in July. Annual precipitation per year is approximately 600 mm. There is fog quite often. In summer the water warms up to + 10°C, in winter to - 1.8°. In winter, the sea is usually almost completely covered with ice, the thickness is 35-40 cm; in cold winters, the coastal fast ice can be up to 150 cm. Most of the ice is drifting; only the fast ice is permanent, about 1 km wide. The ice melts completely only by the end of May.
The White Sea is very rich in water resources; in its waters there are about 50 species of commercial fish and several hundred species of mollusks and bottom plants. Despite its relatively small size, the White Sea plays a huge role for Russia. In addition to the fishing and water transport sectors, it is the largest shipbuilding region, including the nuclear submarine fleet.
The development of the White Sea has a long history. The White Sea region, rich in fish and fur-bearing animals, has long attracted the attention of the Russian people. Even at the dawn of the formation of the Russian state, these regions were settled by immigrants from the Novgorod principality, who later began to be called Pomors. The village of Kholmogory was founded on the banks of the Northern Dvina in the 14th century. It was from Kholmogory that the first caravan of Russian nomads, loaded with grain and sable, set off for Europe in 1492. The ambassadors of the Russian Tsar Ivan III went to Denmark with this caravan.
In 1553, the first English ship, Edward Bonaventure, arrived in Kholmogory. The captain of the ship, skipper Richard Chancellor, an envoy of the English King Edward VI, was warmly greeted by the governor of Kholmogor Feofan Morozov, and even organized a trip for him to Moscow for negotiations. As a result of negotiations, a London-Moscow company was organized, which carried on trade and opened a manufactory in Kholmogory for processing hemp and making ropes. The company existed until 1698. After the British, the Dutch arrived in Kholmogory and established a trading post. Shops and warehouses were built in the city, Kholmogory turned into a large center of trade.
To protect against foreign attacks, a Kremlin was built in the port, which was a quadrangular fortress with five towers. The Kremlin withstood the siege of the Polish-Lithuanian army in 1613. True, it did not last long; a few years later it was washed away during a flood. Then in 1621, on the other high bank, the Kholmogory residents built a new Kremlin, also made of wood, but with 11 towers. Two years later it burned down... In 1682, a diocese was established in Kholmogory, and thanks to its first head, Archbishop Athanasius, the city began to be built up with stone houses. Trade grew, and the small port on the river was unable to accommodate seagoing ships with a low draft. In 1584, a new port and city, Novye Kholmogory, was built in the Northern Dvina delta. In the second half of the 17th century, it was renamed Arkhangelsk, which for many years became the only seaport of the Moscow state.
During the time of Peter I, who decided to make Russia a maritime power, the first shipyards in Russia were built in Arkhangelsk, where, using Dutch technology, they began to build large ships capable of sailing not only at sea, but also in the open ocean. Arriving in Arkhangelsk in 1693, Peter first went to sea on the 12-gun yacht “St. Peter” built for his arrival.
In the same year, he founded the first state-owned shipyard there - Solombala, which later became the Arkhangelsk Admiralty. On his second visit, on May 20, 1694, Peter personally launched the first Russian 24-gun sea ship, St. Paul, from the Solombala shipyard. During Peter's reign, about 150 ships were built at the White Sea shipyards, including 50- and 70-gun ships, with crews of several hundred people. This is how the first Russian flotilla appeared, and Russia emerged as a maritime power.
During Soviet times, the construction of ships in the White Sea became a priority for this region. In 1936, near Arkhangelsk at the Nikolsky mouth of the Northern Dvina, construction of a shipyard began. And already in 1939, the first warship was laid down - the battleship "Soviet Belarus". The village of Molotovsk received the status of a city and began to be called Severodvinsk.
Severodvinsk is the second largest city after Arkhangelsk, and the former Sevmash is one of the largest shipyards in the world. From 1939 to 1990, 45 warships and 163 submarines, including 128 nuclear-powered ones, were built here. Since 1990 alone, the Northern Machine-Building Enterprise production association has built more than a hundred vessels for various purposes: for the Ministry of Defense, for the oil and gas complex, for the fishing industry and for many foreign customers.
There was also a dark streak in the history of the White Sea. Back in the fifteenth century, settlements of monks appeared on the Solovetsky Islands, which were later transformed into a monastery. After the split of the Russian Orthodox Church, the Solovetsky Monastery became a refuge for Old Believers who rebelled against the new foundations. They withstood the siege of the tsarist army for 7 years, but still the rebellion was brutally suppressed. The monastery was destroyed and thousands of monks and Pomors who supported them were tortured and killed. But years later, the monastery was restored again.
After the revolution, in 1920 the Solovetsky Monastery was closed, and the Solovki state farm and a camp for prisoners of war of the Civil War were created on Solovki. The monks were forced to go to work on the state farm, and some left the islands. Since 1990, the Spaso-Preobrazhensky stauropegic monastery on the Solovetsky Islands has been restored to its rights and is operating again. In addition, the Solovetsky State Historical, Architectural and Natural Museum-Reserve was created there in 1967.
Despite many, not always positive, events, the White Sea has been and remains one of the most important seas for Russia with fishing, transport and defense significance, and the unique, northern nature of this region is becoming more and more attractive for domestic and international tourism.
The White Sea is an inland sea in the north of the European part of Russia, belongs to the Arctic Ocean. Among the seas washing Russia, the White Sea is one of the smallest (only the Sea of Azov is smaller). The border between the White and Barents Seas is considered to be a line drawn from Cape Svyatoy Nos (Kola Peninsula) to Cape Kanin Nos (Kanin Peninsula). The White Sea-Baltic Canal connects the White Sea with the Baltic and Volga-Baltic waterways. The entire White Sea is considered to be internal waters of Russia. The water area of the White Sea is divided into several parts: Basin, Throat (the strait connecting the White Sea with the Barents Sea; the Throat of the White Sea is called “Girlo” by the Pomors, this word is given in exactly this vowel in his story “Sealed Glory” by B.V. Shergin), Funnel, Onega Bay, Dvina Bay, Mezen Bay, Kandalaksha Bay.
The shores of the White Sea have their own names and are traditionally divided (in counterclockwise order from the coast of the Kola Peninsula) into Tersky, Kandalaksha, Karelian, Pomorsky, Onega, Letniy, Zimny, Mezensky and Kaninsky; sometimes the Mezen coast is divided into the Abramovsky and Konushinsky banks, and part of the Onega coast is called the Lyamitsky coast. The seashores (Onega and Kandalaksha bays) are indented by numerous lips and bays. The western banks are steep, the eastern banks are low-lying.
The White Sea is one of the smallest seas that washes the territory of Russia. Its dimensions are so small that only the Sea of Azov has a smaller area, and all other bodies of water are larger in volume. The Solovetsky and many other islands are located on the surface of the White Sea, such famous rivers as the Kem, Ponoi and Northern Dvina flow into it, and Arkhangelsk, Belomorsk and Kandalaksha play the role of the main ports.
The White Sea has several names. For example, in Scandinavian mythology it is called "Gandvik". The second name - “Snake Bay”, is associated with the structural features of the shores, which, in fact, represent a curved line. And these are not all the names of the White Sea - it is often called the White Bay, Solovetsky or Calm Sea, etc.
White Sea territory in Russia
The size of the White Sea once again confirms its status. The area is about 90 thousand km², the volume is approximately 4 thousand km³, the length of the banks is approximately 2 thousand km. The maximum depth of the reservoir considered in this material is more than 300 meters, the average depth is 67 meters.
The reservoir is divided into separate parts - the Basin, Gorlo, Voronka, Onega, Dvina and Mezen Bays, Kandalaksha Bay. The largest shores include Tersky, Kandalaksha and Pomeranian. All of them, in turn, are divided into a large number of lips and bays. The shores in the West are steep, while in the East they are lowlands.
The temperature of the White Sea fluctuates over a wide range - depending on the season and can reach 16 °C in the warm season and -1.7 °C in the winter. On the other hand, deep waters are characterized by constant values - ranging from 1.0 °C to +1.5 °C. The salinity of surface waters is minimal (no more than 26 ppm), while that of deep waters is slightly higher (up to 31 ppm).
(Rocky shore of the White Sea, Solovetsky Islands)
If we talk about fishing, fishing as an activity here promises a good catch. Navaga, White Sea herring, salmon, cod and even algae - all this can become the object of a fisherman's hunt. Hunting of marine animals such as harp seal, ringed seal and beluga whale is also common.
The White Sea is an active place for water transport. Transporting not only passengers, but also timber, fish and chemical cargo is a completely common reality here.
(Panorama of the White Sea)
In addition, it often attracts the attention of travelers. Tours to the White Sea are especially popular in the summer months and early autumn. Recreation traditionally includes picnics on the shore, excursions around the islands, boat trips, master classes, fishing, collective picking of berries and mushrooms and much more.
Cities on the White Sea
The most important cities on the sea territory are Arkhangelsk, Belomorsk, Severodvinsk. At the mouth of the Niva River, not a small distance from Murmansk, is the small town of Kandalaksha, with a population of just over 30 thousand inhabitants. Other cities located on the sea are Kem, Mezen and Onega.
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