Bosnia and Herzegovina: general information, population, economy, science and culture. Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia-Herzegovina) Maps of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina has the most complex government system in Europe and many political parties. All this is the result of the country’s historical development, especially in the 1990s.
According to the Yugoslav Constitution of 1946, Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the six republics of the country.
According to the 1995 Constitution currently in force, the democratic state of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two entities: Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina(Muslim-Croatian) and Republika Srpska(RS). Each of these formations has its own president, parliament And government. Government bodies at the federal level include the Presidium, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Council of Ministers.
State system of Bosnia and Herzegovina
On April 5, 1992, the country gained independence from Yugoslavia.
Capital- Sarajevo.
Largest cities- Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Zenica, Tuzla, Mostar.
official languages- Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian.
Form of government- confederal republic.
Collective head of state- Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, consisting of 3 people: a Serb, a Bosnian and a Croat.
Supreme legislative body- Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Supreme body of executive power- Council of Ministers.
Leading political parties:
Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina (national, predominantly Bosnian);
Union of Independent Social Democrats (predominantly Serbian);
Democratic Action Party (Bosniak);
Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina (predominantly Bosnian);
Croatian Democratic Community of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Croatian);
Serbian Democratic Party (Serbian);
Party of Democratic Progress (Serbian).
Territory- 51,197 km². About 90% of the territory is occupied by mountains.
Population- 3,839,737 people.
Currency– convertible mark (equal to 0.51 euros).
Administrative division(approved in 1995) - Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republika Srpska, Brčko District.
Economy- The main branch of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina, even despite the infertile soils, is agriculture. The main crops are tobacco, sugar beets, corn and wheat. Fruits (plums) are grown. There is sheep farming. Wood from mountain forests is extracted.
As part of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina accounted for 99% of iron ore production and 100% of coke production, 40% of coal production, 2/3 of iron production and 50% of steel production in all of Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked first in Yugoslavia in timber production and played a prominent role in the chemical industry (during the SFRY, only Bosnia and Herzegovina had the production of soda (Lukavac) and chlorine). Enterprises in the mining, metallurgical, and oil refining industries are gradually being restored in the country, and production in the textile industry, components for automobiles, the aviation industry, and household appliances is growing.
Predominant religions- Islam (43.7%), Orthodoxy (31.4%), Catholicism (17.3%).
State symbols
Flag- approved on February 4, 1998. This flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of three presented to the parliament appointed by the UN High Representative. All flags used the same colors: blue is the color of the United Nations, but it was replaced by a darker one. The stars symbolize Europe. The triangle symbolizes the country's three main population groups (Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs) and the outline of the country on the map.
Coat of arms- is a blue shield with a yellow triangle. The triangle symbolizes the country's three main population groups (Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs) and the outline of the country on the map. White stars symbolize Europe.
Natural attractions of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Large national park Sutjeska is located in the highlands of southern Bosnia. This is the oldest national park in Republika Srpska. It was created in 1962 and covers an area of 17,250 hectares. The nearest city is Foca. On the territory of this national park there is one of the four relict forests in Europe - Perucica. It is also home to the highest mountain in the Republika Srpska - Maglic (2386 m above sea level). Sutjeska National Park is part of the Federation of European National Parks EUROPARC. 66% of the national park is covered by dense forests. There are also meadows and mountain pastures on a plateau at 1600 m above sea level. In total, the park grows 2600 plant species And 100 types of mushrooms. Separate natural wealth represents relic forest Perucica, where beeches and black pines grow, some of them are more than 300 years old.
This national park is home to bears, wolves, chamois, wild boars, martens, wild goats, etc. It is also home to about 300 species of birds, with 61 species nesting there.
In 1943, the famous Battle of Sutjeska, or Fifth German offensive. It is considered one of the hardest battles of World War II on the territory of Yugoslavia. In memory of this, a monument to the partisans who fell in battle was erected in Tientishte, which is part of the “Valley of Heroes” memorial complex.
"Valley of Heroes"- a memorial complex dedicated to the Battle of Sutjeska, which took place from May 15 to June 15, 1943. The memorial complex was officially opened in 1974. Youth groups from all over Yugoslavia actively took part in its construction. In 2011, the complex was taken under UNESCO protection.
Natural park on the Trebižat River. Dropping from a 10-meter height with foamy white streams, it looks very picturesque and delights with its beauty and harmony. Poetically, it is called a fan open over a cliff.
The waterfall is a popular tourist spot, but it is secluded and below it is a lake with beaches that are crowded and noisy.
Mountain system in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula. It is an alternation of plateaus, basins, ridges and river valleys, sometimes wide and sometimes canyon-like. The Dinaric Highlands are one of the few areas in Europe where natural forests remain: broadleaf- in low mountains (up to 1200-1500 m) and spruce-fir- in the middle mountains. The subalpine belt is represented by thickets mountain pine.
Fauna of the Dinaric Highlands: roe deer, chamois, wolf, lynx, brown bear, peregrine falcon, griffon vulture. The fauna of karst caves is very diverse bats, cave fish And crustaceans.
The waterfalls located on the Pliva River at its confluence with the Vrbas River are incredibly picturesque. Water flows form several cascades. Dropping from a height of several meters, they flow, forming several branches.
The height of the water fall is 30 m. However, during the Bosnian War this area was flooded, which led to a decrease in the height of the waterfall. But he's still handsome.
A not very large mountain located in the central part of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its height is only 1280 m above sea level. There are no high peaks or cliffs covered with snow, which makes this peak not very popular among tourists.
But the main attraction of Mount Hum is the huge white cross, more than 33 m high. It is visible from anywhere in Mostar, even at night, thanks to the bright lighting. This cross was erected in 2000 as a religious symbol of the Catholic faith in Mostar and has since been a source of controversy and controversy between Muslims and Catholics in the city.
In spring, the entire mountain is covered with bizarre flowers of all colors and becomes a magical carpet.
Radobla River
The Radobla River is a small picturesque river flowing through the city of Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina. During the hot period it is nothing interesting, but after heavy rains it turns into a stormy and noisy stream. The riverbed is almost entirely artificial - in the Middle Ages, Radobla powered numerous water mills, some of which have survived to this day.
The so-called river is thrown across the river, which most attracts tourists.
Vrelo Bosne Nature Park
Located in the central part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, near the village of Ilidzha at the foot of Mount Igman.
The park was founded during the Austro-Hungarian rule. During the Bosnian War, the park fell into disrepair; local residents cut down trees and drowned their houses with them. In 2000, thanks to the work of local activists and the help of international organizations, the park was restored.
The Bosnia River originates in the territory of Vrelo Bosne; there are many islands, streams and waterfalls, and picturesque wooden bridges in the park. Here are mineral and thermal springs equipped for spa treatments.
Lake Yablanitsa
This is an artificial reservoir created in 1953 in the central part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, near the city of Mostar. It was created after the construction of a dam on the Neretva River, which is surrounded by mountain peaks. Yablanitsa is an elongated body of water up to 3 km wide.
A popular place among tourists and residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Here you can enjoy the beauty and serenity of nature, swim, go boating and, of course, go fishing.
Other sights of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Military tunnel in Sarajevo
One of the reminders of the siege of Sarajevo during the Bosnian war of 1992-1995. It was built by the residents of Sarajevo in order to get out of the besieged city, as well as to carry humanitarian aid through it. Tunnel length - 720 m. It connected the Butmir and Dobrynya districts. The tunnel led to Sarajevo airport, which was supposed to be neutral territory under the control of the United Nations.
20 meters of the tunnel, preserved to this day, are part of a museum created by the Kolar family.
The tower is located in the business district of Sarajevo and is a symbol of the city. This is one of the tallest structures in the Balkans. Its height together with the antenna is 172 m. Construction of the tower lasted 3 years (2006-2009).
This is a beautiful modern building of an unusual shape with mirrored walls. The skyscraper consists of 41 floors and is equipped with 38 elevators. At an altitude of 150 m there is an observation deck from which you can admire the city.
Historical center of Sarajevo
It is called. This is the oldest part of the city, which was built up from the period of Ottoman rule until the beginning of the twentieth century, during the years of Austro-Hungarian rule. The architecture is characterized by a combination of eastern and western traditions. The eastern part of the Old Town was built during the Ottoman period, and the western part during the rule of Austria-Hungary.
The heart of the Old Town is the district Bascarsija, in the center of which there is a square (Golubinaya) with a large fountain. Around the square and in the cozy narrow streets of the Old Town, as hundreds of years ago, master craftsmen work. All crafts of ancient times are called “old occupations” here.
Cathedral of the Sacred Heart of Jesus
The largest cathedral in Bosnia and Herzegovina, located in Sarajevo. Cathedral is one of the main architectural attractions and is a Catholic center. It was built in 1889 by the architect Josip Vansa in a neo-Gothic style with elements of Romanesque architecture, following the example of Notre Dame Cathedral.
During the siege of Sarajevo, the cathedral was damaged, but quickly restored by the city authorities. Its building is a symbol of the city and is used in the flag and seal of Sarajevo.
Opened in 1951. Covers an area of about 8.5 hectares. During the siege of Sarajevo in 1992-1995. he was completely devastated. Some animals died of starvation, and some became victims of artillery or sniper fire. The last animal, a bear, died in 1995.
In 1999, animals began to arrive again at the zoo, and expansion and reconstruction of the zoo began in order to attract visitors. Currently, the Sarajevo Zoo has about 38 species of animals: monkeys, llamas, ostriches, snakes, deer and elk, buffalo, various waterfowl and other bird species, black bear and many others. The zoo has purchased a new terrarium and is preparing 1,000 square meters to house pumas, lions and meerkats.
It was created in 1888 and is located in Sarajevo. The building was created in the Italian Renaissance style. The pavilions housed the departments of archaeology, ethnography, natural history and a library.
The museum was closed for some time due to serious damage received during the last war. It opened a few years later, but closed again on October 4, 2012 due to funding problems.
House-museum of traditional Bosnian architecture from the Ottoman period. This is a real residential building that belonged to the Svrzo family. It was in honor of its last owners that the museum received its name. The main goal of the museum is to give visitors an idea of the culture and way of life of wealthy Muslim families living in the city from the late 13th to the 19th centuries.
A classic example of Bosnian architecture before the Europeanization of the region. Constructed from mud bricks and wood. Of particular interest to visitors is the interior of the house: it consists of two parts - male and female, which was typical for the period of the Ottoman Empire. You can explore the courtyard, fountain and garden.
History of the country
Traces of human presence on the modern territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina date back to 14-12 millennia BC. – this is evidenced, for example, by an engraving in the Badanj cave in Herzegovina.
In the picture: Engraving in Badanj Cave
Around 1000 BC. e. came to Bosnian territory Illyrians who became the main inhabitants of the country. From the 5th century BC e. The Celts began to invade this region from the north. In the 1st century BC e. The territory of Bosnia was conquered by the Romans and turned into a province under the name Illyricum, after the name of the people who inhabited it.
From then until the 5th century. the province belonged to the Romans. In the 5th century The Roman Empire collapsed, forming two new ones - Western Roman Empire And Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantium. Illyricum went to Byzantium. By that time, many different tribes and peoples had penetrated the Balkan Peninsula through the Danube, among which were Slavs. They actively settled throughout the peninsula and by the 7th century. occupied Bosnian territory, leaving the Byzantines only fortified cities, which were difficult to take. The population of the western Balkans became Slavicized.
In the Middle Ages, Bosnia was the last of the regions of the southern Slavs to create its own state and the last to convert to the Christian faith, since it was geographically isolated from its neighbors, which allowed its culture to develop in its own way.
In 1203, the Pope called on Bosnian religious elders to reject Bogomilism and embrace Catholicism. In 1250, after a series of crusades against the Bogomils, Hungary re-subordinated Bosnia. For a hundred years Bosnia became a Catholic country, subject to Hungary, until 1377 Tvrtko I Kotromanic did not declare himself the Bosnian king.
By the end of the 14th century. Bosnia became a large Slavic state with access to the Adriatic Sea. Now Croatia, Dalmatia and the port of Hum on the Adriatic were subordinate to Bosnia. The country's population has grown greatly and become multinational. After the death of King Tvrtko I, the kingdom fell into decline.
In 1463, most of Bosnia fell under Turkish rule, and in 1482 Herzegovina also submitted to the Turks. As part of the Ottoman Empire, these two regions were united, and a single vilayat of Bosnia was formed. After a series of uprisings against the Ottoman Empire, the Congress of Berlin took place in 1878, at which Bosnia and Herzegovina was transferred to the control of Austria-Hungary. At first, Bosnia and Herzegovina was actively developing: railways were built, banks were founded, factories and factories were opened - industrialization began. But a semi-colonial regime was established in the province. The political confrontation between Croats and Serbs intensified, as they wanted to annex these territories to Croatia and Serbia.
In 1903 he ascended the Serbian throne Peter I Karageorgievich, I king of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In Serbia, as a result of a surge of nationalism, the Bosnian crisis began. In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina - all of Europe was on the brink of world war. IN 1914. the Sarajevo assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand marked the beginning First World War.
After the end of the First World War and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina found itself part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, which united with the Kingdom of Serbia, creating a new state in the Balkans - Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Bosnian Muslims began to fight for the autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In 1929 Alexander I Karageorgievich established a royal dictatorship and renamed the Kingdom of SHS to Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into several Banovin(administrative-territorial unit). In 1939, the autonomous Banovina Croatia was created from the Banovinas with a predominantly Croatian population.
During Second World War Germany and its allies occupied Yugoslavia and divided it into several parts. Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the "Independent Croatian State". After the end of the war Bosnia and Herzegovina received the status of a Republic within the Yugoslav Federation, which he created according to the Soviet model.
Until 1966, the leadership structures were dominated by Serbs, who persecuted Croat and Bosnian nationalists, however, after 1966, Broz Tito began to rely on his proteges, regardless of their ethnic origin. He created the conditions for the development and prosperity of the Bosniak communities of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a price for compliance with his regime.
IN 1992. The Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence and was first recognized by the countries of the European Union and the United States, then other states began to recognize it. As a result of the outbreak of war, the state collapsed. The EU and the UN developed a plan to resolve the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina: the country was divided into 10 regions, homogeneous in their national composition.
Bosnian Serbs led by Radovan Karadzic returned the territory taken from the Muslims. The Croats and Bosniaks agreed to this, but the Serbs refused to follow it. In August 1995, US Air Force aircraft began bombing positions of Bosnian Serb troops. As a result, Bosniaks and Croats recognized the autonomy of the Serb community within Bosnia and Herzegovina. In December 1995, the conflict was resolved. But even after the signing of these agreements, the situation in the region remained extremely unstable.
The International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia was established in The Hague by the UN Security Council. In 1997, tendencies toward cooperation between Serbian and Bosnian authorities began to emerge, but this was the result of international pressure on Bosnia and Herzegovina. The integrity of the state is ensured by NATO troops.
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA (Bosna i Hercegovina).
General information
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state in South-Eastern Europe, in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. It borders on Croatia in the north, west and south, on Serbia and Montenegro in the east and southeast; in the south it has access to the Adriatic Sea (about 20 km of coastline). Area 51.1 thousand km2. Population 4452.9 thousand people (2005). The capital is Sarajevo. Official languages are Bosnian (Bosanian), Serbian, Croatian (see Serbo-Croatian language). The monetary unit is the convertible mark (CM). It consists of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (area 26.08 thousand km 2, or about 51% of the country’s territory; population 2931 thousand people, 2005) and Republika Srpska (area 25.05 thousand km 2, population 1521.9 thousand people). Administratively, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into 10 cantons, consisting of 79 communities; there are 62 communities within the Republika Srpska; The Brčko community, by decision of international arbitration (1999), was declared a special district (district) and is a condominium of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the UN (1992), OSCE (1992), Council of Europe (2002), IMF (1992), IBRD (1993), WTO (observer).
Yu. E. Bychkov, A. A. Shinkarev.
Political system
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a federal state comprising the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina was adopted on December 14, 1995. The form of government is a parliamentary republic.
The functions of the head of state are performed by a collegial body - the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which consists of 3 members: one Bosniak and one Croat (elected directly from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina) and one Serb (elected directly from the Republika Srpska). Their term of office is 4 years (with the right to one re-election). Members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina elect a chairman from among themselves. The Presidium conducts the foreign policy of the state; appoints ambassadors and other state representatives abroad; represents in international organizations; conducts negotiations and the like. Each member of the Presidium, by virtue of his position, has the authority to exercise civilian leadership of the country's armed forces.
Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral Parliamentary Assembly. The House of Peoples consists of 15 deputies, of which 10 are elected by national parliaments from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (5 deputies from Croats and 5 from Bosniaks) and 5 from Republika Srpska (from Serbs). The House of Representatives consists of 42 deputies, 2/3 are elected by the population from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and 1/3 from the Republika Srpska. Executive power belongs to the Council of Ministers. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers is appointed by the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina after his approval by the House of Representatives.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a multi-party system; The main political parties are the Democratic Action Party, the Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbian Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Croatian Democratic Union / Christian Democratic Party.
V. P. Shram.
Nature
Relief. Most of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is located within the Dinaric Highlands. From north-west to south-east, predominantly flat-topped, strongly dissected, often with steep slopes, mountain ranges and vast intermountain basins stretch parallel to each other. In the northern and southern parts, hilly and low-mountain areas predominate, in the central part there are mid-mountain and high-mountain massifs, reaching 2386 m in the southeast (the highest point of Bosnia and Herzegovina is Mount Maglic). Karst landforms are widespread - bare limestone rocks, karrs, caves, underground rivers. Vast fields were formed in the intermountain basins, including Livansko-Pole (405 km 2). In the southwest there is a short (about 20 km) section of the mountainous coast of the Adriatic Sea. In the north, along the Sava River valley, there is a plain with flat watersheds and wide river valleys (the southern part of the Middle Danube Lowland).
Geological structure and minerals. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is located within the Dinaric fold system (the so-called Dinarides) of the Cenozoic Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt, which is characterized by a cover-zonal structure. The outer zones are folded and disturbed by thrusts and covers of sedimentary strata of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Paleogene and represent fragments of the cover of the continental block of Adria (located to the west) torn off at different stages of Alpine tectogenesis. The internal zones are formed by covers of Jurassic ophiolites, Cretaceous limestones and Cretaceous-Paleogene flysch - fragments of the crust of the Neo-Tethys oceanic basin (see the Tethys article). There are intrusions of Cenozoic granitoids. Small depressions are filled with Neogene coal-bearing deposits. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is highly seismic. As a result of the catastrophic earthquake of 1969, the city of Banja Luka was destroyed.
The most important minerals of Bosnia and Herzegovina: bauxite (deposits are mainly of the karst type, grouped into bauxite-bearing areas - Bosanska Krupa, Jajce, Vlasenica, Mostar, etc.), iron ores (ore districts Ljubija, Vares, Omarska), brown coal (Banovichi and Central Bosnian basins), lignites (Kamnegrad basin), asbestos (Bosansko-Petrovo-Selo deposit). There are known deposits of mercury (Drazhevich) and manganese (Buzhim, Chevlyanovichi) ores, barite (Kreshevo), rock salt, natural building materials (clay, etc.).
Climate. In most of the country the climate is temperate continental. Summer is warm (average July temperature 19-21°C on the plains, 12-18°C in the mountains). Winter is moderately cool (average January temperature is from 0 to -2°C on the plains, from -4 to -7°C in the mountains). Every year, 800-1000 mm of precipitation falls evenly on the plains and 1500-1800 mm in the mountains. In the southwest and south of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the climate is subtropical Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers (average July temperature 25°C) and warm, humid winters (average January temperature 5°C). Up to 1600 mm of precipitation falls annually with a maximum in November - December.
Inland waters. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a dense and extensive river network with a total length of over 2000 km. About 3/4 of the territory belongs to the Danube River basin. The main rivers are the Sava with the tributaries Una, Sana, Vrbas, Bosna, and Drina flowing mainly from south to north. The largest of the rivers in the Adriatic Sea basin (1/4 of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina) is the Neretva River. The largest lakes Bushko and Bilechko are of karst origin. Annually renewable water resources amount to 38 km 3, water availability is about 9 thousand m 3 per person per year (2000). Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential; About 30 reservoirs have been created. No more than 3% of water resources are used for economic purposes (of which 60% goes for agricultural needs, 30% for municipal needs, 10% is consumed by industrial enterprises).
Soils, flora and fauna. Fertile alluvial soils are common in the valleys of the Sava River and its tributaries, and brown soils are common in the mountains. The forest area is 2,273 thousand hectares (44% of the territory), including 57 thousand hectares of artificial forest plantations. The native broadleaf forests of the plains of northern Bosnia have been replaced by agricultural land. In the foothills and on the northern slopes of the mountains, up to a height of 500 m, oak and hornbeam forests grow with an admixture of maple, linden, and elm. In the central regions, beech forests are common, at an altitude of 800-900 m they are replaced by beech-fir forests with an admixture of pine and spruce. In the southeast, in the belt of mixed and coniferous forests, the endemic Serbian spruce is occasionally found. Above 1600-1700 m there are crooked mountain pine forests and subalpine meadows. On the southwestern slopes, on brown soils, maquis with holm oak, red juniper and other predominantly evergreen species of shrubs are common; on rocky slopes, phrygana is common. Above 300-400 m, areas of indigenous forests of downy and holm oaks, hornbeam, and French maple are combined with shiblyak thickets on the rendzinas.
The mountains are home to chamois, red deer, roe deer, brown bear, wolf, wild boar, European lynx, wild cat, otter, and marten. In karst areas there are numerous lizards, snakes, and turtles. Large birds include eagles, falcons, and wood grouse. In the swampy lower reaches of the Neretva River there are great and little egrets, bitterns, and a variety of waterfowl; Among the predators are the golden eagle, the greater spotted eagle, and the white-tailed eagle.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina there are 5 protected natural areas with a total area of 25.05 thousand hectares, including the Sutjeska and Kozara national parks.
Lit.: Romanova E. P. Modern landscapes of Europe. M., 1997; Shuman M. Bosnia and Herzegovina. N.Y., 2004.
M. A. Arshinova; V. E. Khain (geological structure and minerals).
Population
Bosniaks, according to various estimates, make up from 38 to 52.5% of the population, Serbs - from 21.5 to 30%, Croats - from 12 to 17%, Roma - over 10% (2005). Other ethnic groups living in Bosnia and Herzegovina are Montenegrins, Macedonians, Albanians, Czechs, Slovaks, Rusyns, Jews, etc.
According to the population census (1991), 4.37 million people lived in Bosnia and Herzegovina. During the armed conflict of 1992-95, about 200-250 thousand people died, over 30 thousand people went missing, about 2 million people became refugees and displaced persons. Since the late 1990s, the country's population has been increasing due to the return of some refugees, as well as due to the relatively high birth rate (12.5 births per 1,000 inhabitants in 2005) and low mortality (8.4 per 1,000 inhabitants); infant mortality (21.1 per 1000 live births) is one of the highest in Europe. The fertility rate is 1.7 children per woman. Natural population growth 0.44% (2005). The balance of external migration is positive - 0.3 migrants per 1000 inhabitants. The share of children under 15 years old is 18.3% (2005), elderly people (65 years and older) 10.9%, people of working age (15-64 years old) 70.7%. On average, there are 101 men for every 100 women. Average life expectancy is 72.9 years (men - 70.1, women - 75.8 years). Demographic behavior varies significantly among different ethnic groups of the population. The highest birth rate and natural increase are among Bosniaks, among Serbs and Croats; the number of women predominates in all age categories, except for children (up to 15 years).
The average population density is 87.1 people/km 2 (2005), in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina - 112.4 people/km 2, in the Republika Srpska - 60.7 people/km 2. River valleys are the most densely populated; In sparsely populated mountainous areas, residents of older age groups predominate. The process of population concentration in developed urban centers and other urbanized settlements continues. The share of the urban population is 43% (2003). Large cities (2005; thousand people): Sarajevo (697), Banja Luka (221), Zenica (164), Tuzla (142), Mostar (105). In total, the economy employs over 1 million people (2001). Unemployment rate 44% of the country's economically active population (official data); the real unemployment rate is about 20% (including hidden employment; estimate).
Yu. E. Bychkov, A. A. Shinkarev.
Religion
On the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina there are 5 dioceses of the Serbian Orthodox Church: Dabro-Bosanska, Banja Luka, Bihać-Petrovac, Zahum-Herzegovina and Zvornić-Tuzlan. According to official statistics (2004), 31% of the population are Orthodox Christians. According to various sources, from 40 to 44% of the population are Sunni Muslims, 15.5% are Catholics, and about 4% are Protestants. On the territory of the country, in Medjugorje, there is an international center of pilgrimages associated with the apparitions of the Virgin Mary. As a result of the military clashes of 1992-95, numerous Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim religious sites were destroyed and damaged. To resolve religious issues, there is an Interreligious Council, consisting of representatives of 4 faiths: Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Islam and Judaism.
Historical sketch
Bosnia and Herzegovina until the mid-15th century
The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era (site near the mouth of the Usora River). Since the Neolithic, the gravitational pull of the cultures of Bosnia towards the interior regions of the Balkans (Butmir culture, Vita), and Herzegovina towards the Mediterranean (Starčevo culture) can be traced. In the late Neolithic - early Bronze Age, dramatic changes occurred in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the cultures of Vučedol, Kostolac, and the Baden culture spread. Monuments at the turn of the Bronze and Iron Ages belong to Eastern Hallstatt (the Bosnian version of this culture is associated with the Illyrians). In the 4th century BC, the Celts entered the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, displaced or assimilated in the 2nd century BC, when these lands fell into the orbit of the policies of Ancient Rome. At the beginning of the 1st century AD, the lands of Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Roman state (the provinces of Dalmatia, Upper and Lower Pannonia). Roman cities and villas appeared, the mining of iron, silver, and gold developed; Despite Romanization, the traditions of the Illyrians are preserved in the countryside. At the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was attacked by the Visigoths, after being part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths (end of the 5th century - around 535) it came under the rule of Byzantium. In the 6th-7th centuries the Slavs appeared here. Since the mid-10th century, sources mention tribal principalities: Trebinje, Zahumlje, Travuniya, Pogania (Neretva) and Bosnia. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the object of rivalry between Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, and Byzantium and was alternately part of them. In the 12th-14th centuries, Bosnia was a principality led by a ban [the most famous: Kulin (ruled 1180-1204 or 1203), Stjepan Kotromanich (ruled 1322-53)].
From the end of the 12th century, Bogomilism spread throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina, on the basis of which the independent Bosnian Church arose. Ban Tvrtko I annexed part of the Serbian lands and the Adriatic coast with the cities of Kotor, Split, Sibenik, Trogir and in 1377 took the title of king of the “Serbs, Bosnia, Pomerania and Western countries”; his troops took part in the battle of the united Serbian forces against the Turks on Kosovo Polje (1389). After the death of Tvrtko I (1391), a long period of feudal civil strife began. During this struggle, one of the rulers of the southern part of the Bosnian kingdom, Stjepan Vukcic, proclaimed himself Duke of “Saint Sava” (1448); his possessions later became known as Herzegovina.
Bosnia and Herzegovina under Ottoman rule. In 1463, Bosnia and in 1482 Herzegovina were conquered by the Turks and in 1583 united into the Bosnian Pashalik. The Turkish military fief system became widespread there. Most of the nobility and part of the population converted to Islam. Part of the Christian population, oppressed both by the Turkish authorities and the local Muslim nobility, migrated. The centers of Orthodoxy were monasteries; Among the Catholic population, the Franciscans enjoyed the greatest authority (the active work of Catholic missionaries, especially in the Western lands, began at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries). From the beginning of the 19th century, the struggle of the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina against national and social oppression intensified (peasant uprisings in 1804-13, 1834, 1852-53, 1857-58, 1861-62, etc.), culminating in the Herzegovinian-Bosnian uprising 1875-78. By decision of the Berlin Congress in 1878, Austria-Hungary received the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina and impose its administration there. The Austro-Hungarian authorities carried out a cross-band resettlement of Orthodox, Catholics and Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serbs, who made up the largest national community, were opposed to the Croats, the Croats to the Serbs, the Christians to the Muslims.
Bosnia and Herzegovina from the beginning of the 20th century. In 1908, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed by Austria-Hungary. This caused protests not only in Bosnia and Herzegovina itself, but also in neighboring countries, primarily in Serbia; The Bosnian crisis of 1908-09 arose. A member of the Young Bosnia organization, G. Princip, shot the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, which was the reason for the 1st World War. In 1918, after the collapse of Austria-Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (from 1929 Yugoslavia). During the 2nd World War it was included in the puppet Independent State of Croatia. The main battles of the liberation war in Yugoslavia took place on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the liberation of Yugoslavia (1945), Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia as a people's republic; since 1963, a socialist republic within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in the Muslim population. According to censuses, in 1961, 42.89% of Orthodox Christians (mostly Serbs), 25.69% of Muslims (Bosniaks), 21.71% of Catholics (mostly Croats) lived in Bosnia and Herzegovina; in 1971, respectively, 37.19%, 39 .57% and 20.62%, in 1981 - 32.02%, 39.52% and 18.38%, in 1991 - 31.2%, 43.5% and 17.4% (5.6 % self-identified as “Yugoslavs”). The separation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from Yugoslavia (the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina was proclaimed in March 1992, which was recognized by the world community in April 1992) was accompanied by an interethnic war (1992-95), which ended with the signing of the Dayton Accords (1995). Bosnia and Herzegovina consisted of two equal entities - the Republika Srpska (49% of the territory) and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosniak-Croatian; 51% of the territory). Multinational military forces under NATO command were introduced into the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, later replaced by peacekeeping forces of the European Community. All political power has been transferred to the UN High Representative, who is vested with sanctioning powers and has the right to change the elected leaders there. Although significant international assistance since 1995 has facilitated the reconstruction process, the consequences of inter-ethnic conflict continue to have a negative impact on the development of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Lit.: Hilferding A. [F.] Bosnia, Herzegovina and Old Serbia. St. Petersburg, 1859; Klaic V. Poviest Bosne do propasti kralevstva. Zagreb, 1882; Lavrov P. Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the attitude of the Slavs towards it. St. Petersburg, 1909; ?opovu? V. Bosna and Herzegovina. Beograd, 1925; Slipicevic F. Bosna i Hercegovina od Berlinskog kongresa do kraja Prvog svetskog rata (1878-1918). Zagreb, 1954; History of Yugoslavia: In 2 vols. M., 1963; ?irkovi? S. History of the Middle Ages in Bosanske Dřave. Beograd, 1964; Kapidzic H. Bosna i Herctgovina pod austrougarskom upravom. Sarajevo, 1968; Pisarev Yu. A. Formation of the Yugoslav state. World War I. The liberation struggle of the Yugoslav peoples of Austria-Hungary. Collapse of the Habsburg monarchy. M., 1975; Sabanovic H. Bosanski pasaluk. Sarajevo, 1982; Kraljacic T. Kalajev rezim u Bosni i Hercegovini (1882-1903). Sarajevo, 1987; Liberation struggle of the peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Russia: 1850-1875. Documentation. M., 1985-1988. [T. 1-2]; Bosnia, Herzegovina and Russia in 1850-1875: peoples and diplomacy. M., 1990; Bosna i Hercegovina od najstarijih vremena do kraja Drugog svetskog rata. Sarajevo, 1998; Nikiforov K.V. Between the Kremlin and the Republika Srpska (Bosnian crisis: the final stage). M., 1999; Guskova E. Yu. History of the Yugoslav crisis (1990-2000). M., 2001.
K. V. Nikiforov.
Farm
Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the underdeveloped countries in Europe. GDP volume is 26.2 billion dollars (at purchasing power parity, 2004); according to national statistics - 17.9 billion KM, or about 11 billion dollars. 62.8% of GDP is created in the service sector, 25.3% in industry, 11.9% in agriculture. Human Development Index - 0.786 (2003; 68th place among 177 countries of the world).
Bosnia and Herzegovina (along with Macedonia) was one of the least economically developed republics of the former Yugoslavia. In the 1950-80s, a complex of heavy industry enterprises was created in the republic, mainly focused on the use of local resources. Thermal and hydroelectric power stations were built, the mining of coal, ferrous and non-ferrous metal ores, and rock salt was developed; production of coke, steel and rolled products, aluminum, chemical products, cellulose, paper, etc. increased; A number of defense industry enterprises operated. As a result of the armed inter-ethnic conflict of 1992-95, the economy and infrastructure of Bosnia and Herzegovina were destroyed.
In 2004, GDP was about 70% of the level of the early 1990s; real GDP growth - 5%. The country's economic policy is aimed at solving two main tasks: restoring the economy and reforming it on a market basis. The most important economic and social problems are a large foreign trade deficit and high unemployment. The privatization process has been launched (about 60% of GDP is produced in the public sector of the economy, 2005). The volume of foreign direct investment is increasing. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, enterprises of large TNCs were created - Coca-Cola, Volkswagen, Daimler-Chrysler, etc. Several free economic zones (Vogoscea, Banja Luka, Mostar, etc.). Economic and social problems are partly solved through foreign financial assistance ($650 million in 2001). The Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina pursues a policy of firmly supporting the exchange rate of the national currency (in fact, it is carried out by non-economic methods); There is practically no inflation in the country (0.4% in 2004).
Industry. Due to the incompleteness of the post-war economic reconstruction, the domestic market of Bosnia and Herzegovina is limited; Many industrial enterprises are not operating at full capacity, focusing production on export supplies. Growth in industrial production volumes 5.5% (2003).
In the structure of the fuel and energy balance of Bosnia and Herzegovina, oil and petroleum products account for 18%, natural gas - 20%, coal and lignites - 37%, hydropower - 25% (2003). Oil and natural gas are imported, mainly from Russia. Extraction of brown coal and lignites (about 540 thousand tons in 2004) in mines located in the intermountain basins of the central and north-eastern part of the country, from Breza to Tuzla. Bosnia and Herzegovina has significant energy potential, allowing it not only to fully satisfy its own electricity needs, but also to supply it for export. Electricity production 11,678 million kWh (2004); export 3288 million kWh (2002), import 2271 million kWh. About 1/3 of electricity production comes from hydroelectric power plants, the largest - on the rivers Neretva (near Jablanica and Chaplina), Vrbas (Jajce), Trebišnica (Trebinje). A program for the construction of small hydroelectric power stations on mountain rivers is being implemented (4 such hydroelectric power stations were built in 2005). Thermal power plants operate mainly on local coal and lignite; the largest thermal power plants are in Gacko, Tuzla, and Ugljevik. The main oil refining center is the plant in the city of Bosanski Brod (with a capacity of up to 5 million tons of crude oil refining per year).
The main enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy (steel plant in Zenica, aluminum plant in Mostar, alumina plant in Zvornik) were restored with the participation of foreign capital, most of their products are exported (about 1/4 of the country's annual export earnings). Extraction of iron ores (about 127 thousand tons; mines near Ljubija and Vares), manganese (near the town of Bosanska Krupa), lead and zinc (in the Srebrenica area), as well as bauxite (in the areas of the cities of Vlasenica, Srebrenica, Jajce, Bosanska Krupa and etc.). Steel production 197 thousand tons (2003), aluminum (from imported raw materials) 171 thousand tons, alumina (entirely exported) 640 thousand tons (2004), lead and zinc concentrates - 11.7 thousand tons. Leading industry - transport engineering, specializing in the production of automobile engines, components, assemblies and parts (about 50 enterprises). The main centers are Sarajevo, Mostar, Teshnja, etc. Products are supplied to 25 countries worth 200 million euros (2004). The car assembly plant in Vogosce produces small batches of Volkswagen passenger cars (about 3.5 thousand units per year).
On the basis of significant forest resources, forestry and wood processing enterprises operate (about 1.5 thousand in total). Available capacities allow us to process over 2 million m3 of wood annually. The industry includes furniture production (about 200 enterprises), the capabilities of which significantly exceed the needs of the domestic market. Lumber and furniture are one of the country's important exports (240 million euros in 2003). The capacities of pulp and paper industry enterprises allow the annual production of over 250 thousand tons of various types of paper and cardboard. The most important center of light industry (textiles, leather, footwear, clothing) is Sarajevo.
Agriculture. Natural conditions favorable for the development of agriculture and available capacities for processing agricultural products make it possible to fully meet the country's food needs. Almost all agricultural production is in private hands, but most peasant farms (usually small) are ineffective. Every year the country imports food worth over $1 billion.
Agricultural land occupies over 2 million hectares (over 40% of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina), including 695.4 thousand hectares occupied by arable land and vegetable gardens (2001), 151.3 thousand hectares by orchards and vineyards; the rest is meadows and mountain pastures. The main tracts of arable land are located in river valleys, mainly in the Sava River valley, in the northern part of the country, where the climate and soils are favorable for the cultivation of grain and some industrial crops (sugar beets, soybeans, sunflowers). Grain harvest 1.1 million tons (2004; including corn 750 thousand tons, wheat 250 thousand tons, oats 55 thousand tons, barley 41.8 thousand tons, rye 12 thousand tons). To the south, upstream of the Sava tributaries, on the hills and foothills there are especially many orchards. Harvest (thousand tons): plums 73, apples 35, pears 12. In the southwest of Herzegovina, where the Mediterranean climate prevails, tobacco is grown, as well as apricots, tangerines, peaches, figs, cherries, olives, and melons; significant areas are occupied by vineyards (the grape harvest is about 20 thousand tons). The traditional center of winemaking is the Mostar region. Potatoes and vegetables are grown everywhere. Harvest (thousand tons, 2004): potatoes 350, cabbage 78, tomatoes 35, green pepper 30, onions (dry weight) 30, carrots 10, other vegetables 500. Cattle and poultry are raised in the river valleys (in the Republic Serbian and in areas with a Croatian population also pigs). In the central part of the country, transhumance livestock farming (including sheep breeding) predominates. The number of cattle is 190 thousand (2003), sheep and goats 98 thousand, pigs 35 thousand, poultry 1370 thousand. Production (thousand tons, 2004): whole cow milk 460, meat and meat products in general 56.4.
Services sector. The most important branch of the service sector remains wholesale and retail trade. Information infrastructure, telecommunications and communications are developing most rapidly. During the economic transformations, a modern banking system was formed in the country (36 commercial banks, 2005). A number of companies are operating successfully, created on the basis of research centers and design bureaus that existed in Bosnia and Herzegovina until the early 1990s. The main area of their activity is the preparation and organization of work on the implementation of large construction projects (including abroad). The leading organization in this area is the company Energoinvest (Sarajevo) with an annual income of about 100 million euros.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a variety of natural, climatic, cultural and historical resources for the development of tourism and recreation: resorts (with thermal water and mud springs) and winter recreation centers in the mountains near Sarajevo, karst caves of the Dinaric Highlands, beaches of the Adriatic coast; numerous historical and architectural monuments (in Sarajevo, Travnik, Mostar and other cities). Before the armed conflict of 1992-1995, income from tourism (mainly foreign) amounted to about 2.5% of the republic's GDP. In 2005, the hotel base and tourism infrastructure of Bosnia and Herzegovina are in the process of restoration. The profitability of the tourism business is low.
Transport. The main type of transport is automobile. The length of roads is 22.6 thousand km (2004), including about 14 thousand km of paved roads. Mountain road sections with low traffic capacity predominate. The length of the railways is 1031 km (in 2004, 3.2 million tons of cargo were transported along them). Navigation on the Sava River and its tributaries. River ports - Doboj (on the Bosna River), Bosanski Šamac, Bosanski Brod (on the Sava), etc. Sea transport is carried out through the port of Ploce (Croatia). The most important airports are in Sarajevo, Mostar, Banja Luka, Tuzla. The national airline is VN Airlines. The bulk of air transportation is carried out by foreign companies.
International trade. The volume of foreign trade turnover is 6.9 billion dollars (2004), including exports of 1.7 billion dollars, imports of 5.2 billion dollars. The commodity structure of exports is dominated by raw materials and semi-finished products (castings of ferrous metals, aluminum, lumber), furniture, electricity, as well as automotive components and assemblies, products of the textile, clothing and leather industries. The most important import items: machinery and equipment (including cars, household electrical appliances and electronics), chemicals, fuel (oil and petroleum products, natural gas), food. The bulk of foreign trade turnover falls on EU countries. The main importers of goods from Bosnia and Herzegovina: Italy (22.9% of value in 2004), Croatia (22.1%), Germany (20.3%), Austria (7.5%), Slovenia (6.9% ), Hungary (4.9%). The main suppliers of goods to Bosnia and Herzegovina: Croatia (26.4%), Germany (14.9%), Slovenia (13.4%), Italy (12.0%), Austria (6.9%), Hungary ( 6.4%).
Yu. E. Bychkov, A. A. Shinkarev.
Armed forces
The armed forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (as of 2005) include the paramilitary forces of the Republika Srpska (about 12.2 thousand people; 8 operational-tactical missile launchers, 137 tanks, 115 armored fighting vehicles, about 500 artillery pieces and mortars, anti-aircraft artillery and army aviation) and paramilitary forces of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (about 23.8 thousand people; 204 tanks, 147 armored combat vehicles, 905 artillery pieces and mortars, MLRS and army aviation). There are EU peacekeeping forces (about 7 thousand people) on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mobilization resources: 953 thousand people, including 405 thousand people fit for military service.
Healthcare
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, per 100 thousand inhabitants there are 143 doctors, 452 paramedical personnel (2002), 19 dentists (1998). Primary health care is provided by clinics and medical centers, specialized care is provided by specialized clinics, hospitals, health and rehabilitation centers, and institutes. There are 314 beds per 100 thousand inhabitants (2003). Health expenditures account for 7.5% of GDP (2001). Medical personnel are trained at 5 medical institutes. Much work has been done to develop family medicine in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Resorts - Banja Vručica, Ilidzha.
A. N. Prokinova.
Sport
The National Olympic Committee was created in 1992, and the IOC since 1993. The most developed team sports are football, basketball, handball, rugby, and chess. The Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team is a participant in the qualifying tournaments for the European and World Championships. Since 1957, Sarajevo has hosted traditional chess tournaments with the participation of the world's strongest grandmasters, known since 1960 as the Bosna Tournaments. In 1984, the Olympic Winter Games were held in Sarajevo.
Education. Scientific and cultural institutions
The general management of educational institutions is carried out by the Federal Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sports. The education system includes: preschool institutions for children 3-7 years old, basic compulsory two-level schools (for 7-11 year olds and 11-15 year old children), general secondary 4-year schools (gymnasiums) for 15-19 year old students, special secondary 4-year schools (teaching, art, music, religious, technical), vocational 3-year schools, universities. The higher education system includes 4 universities: in Sarajevo (1949), Banja Luka (1975), Tuzla (1976), Mostar (1977), Pedagogical Academies in Zenica and Bihac (both 1993), Pedagogical College in Bijelina (early 2000s).
In 1966, the Academy of Sciences and Arts was created on the basis of the Scientific Society of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1951, Sarajevo). Main scientific institutions: institutes of meteorology (1891), thermal and nuclear technology (1961), linguistics (1973), Bosnian Institute (1997; research in the field of history and culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina) - all in Sarajevo; societies - mathematical, physical and astronomical, geographical, pedagogical, medical, etc.
Libraries: Gazi Hasrevbegova (1537), National and University (1945), National Museum (all in Sarajevo), etc. Over 20 museums and galleries, including museums: National (1888), historical, literature and theater art, Art Gallery (1946) - all in Sarajevo; Regional Museum in Banja Luka (1930).
Lit.: Democracy in education in Bosnia - Herzegovina and FR Yugoslavia. Stockh., 2002; Education in Bosnia. Oklahoma, 2002.
Mass media
Largest daily newspapers (2005): Oslobodenje, Nezavisne novine, Dnevni avaz, Slobodna Bosna magazine . State television and radio broadcasting includes 4 radio and 2 television channels. Nationwide public television broadcasting is carried out on the BGTV-1 channel (BGTV-1). FTV is the public broadcaster of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. RTRS is the public television and radio company of the Republika Srpska. "Mreza Plus" is a commercial channel. There are 2 state news agencies in the country: FENA, which belongs to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, SRNA, which belongs to the Republika Srpska.
G. V. Pruttskov.
Literature
The literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina develops mainly in the Bosnian language (see Serbo-Croatian language) and goes back to the traditions of Cyrillic writing. The oldest monuments (Divoshevo Four Gospels, charter of King Stepan Dabisha, Collection of Praises, etc.) date back to the 14th-15th centuries. In the 15th-17th centuries, chronographs were created in some Serbian monasteries in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Literary monuments include epitaphs from stone tombstones on the theme of life and death. Since the 16th century, works by Bosnian Muslims have appeared in Turkish, Persian, Arabic, as well as in Bosnian (using Arabic alphabet). Religious and instructive poems (Ilahie and Hasidim) by Hadji Yusuf, Hasani Kaimi, Khevai Uskyufi are known. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Croatian Franciscan monks wrote religious, didactic and historical works using both the Cyrillic and Latin alphabet (M. Divkovic, I. Antic, A. Shipragic, S. Margitich). In the 19th century, the influence of Illyrianism (on Franciscan writers - I.F. Jukic, G. Martic) and romanticism (on Serbian writers - S. Milutinović-Sarajlija and others) became evident. Religious-didactic genres dominated the literature of Bosnian Muslims until the end of the 19th century (M. C. Chatic). At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, outstanding Serbian poets A. Šantić and J. Dučić and satirist P. Kočić worked in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In the 20th century, literature in Bosnia and Herzegovina developed primarily in the tradition of realism. The social-critical direction was born (N. Simic, H. Kikich). In the 1950s and 60s, the work of the Serbian realist B. Copic became truly popular; the literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina was brought international recognition by the Serb I. Andrić (Nobel Prize, 1961) and the Bosniak M. Selimovic, who adhered to the Serbian literary tradition. The work of Selimovic and the Bosniak S. Kulenovic (also associated with the Serbian tradition) forms the basis of the new Muslim literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina that has been emerging since the 1970s. At the same time, the Bosniak poets M. Dizdar, an adherent of the Croatian literary school, and I. Sarajlić, close to Serbian literature, belong to several literary traditions; the prose writer C. Sijarić was perceived both as a Muslim, and as a Montenegrin, and as a Serbian writer.
Lit.: Rizvic M. Bosanskohercegovacke knjizevne studije. Sarajevo, 1980; History of the literature of Western and Southern Slavs. M., 1997-2001.T. 1-3.
S. N. Meshcheryakov.
Architecture and fine arts
On the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, ceramics with linear and spiral patterns, figurines of women and animals from the Neolithic era, art monuments of the Illyrians and Celts, remains of ancient Roman cities (Domavium, now Domavia, etc.), and jewelry of the ancient Slavs were discovered. Medieval art of Bosnia and Herzegovina absorbed influences from Byzantium, Serbia, Dalmatia, Central Europe, and, from the mid-15th century, Turkey. Castles and fortified tower-dwellings (“kuls”), basilicas (in Zenica, Breze, etc.) were erected; simple cross-domed churches were built (in Ozren), as well as single-nave (in Dobrun, until 1383), Romanesque (in Jajce) and Gothic (in Bihac) churches. The type of dwelling still found today was a house (made of clay, wood or stone) with a 4-slope roof, a cage and living quarters on the 2nd floor. During the period of Turkish rule, a type of city house with an enclosed courtyard and stairs leading to the upper floor developed. Small cities with dense buildings had a “sakhat-kulu” (clock tower). Mosques, madrassas, baths, caravanserais, and bridges were erected. In fine art, stone tombstones (so-called stečaks) with carved reliefs have become widespread. The few surviving monuments of medieval monumental painting (frescoes of the church in Dobrun, late 14th century) are close to the murals of Serbia, but also indicate familiarity with the culture of Italy. The art of miniatures in the 12th-14th centuries experienced Serbian and Byzantine influences. The Bogomil manuscripts with naive folklore miniatures (Kopitar Gospel, 14th century) are interesting. The iconography of Bosnia and Herzegovina followed Byzantine canons until the mid-19th century. Metal processing and artistic weaving (lint-free kilim carpets with geometric and floral patterns) reached high perfection in the Middle Ages.
During the Austrian occupation, buildings were built in the cities in the spirit of European eclecticism, in the “Moorish” (Town Hall in Sarajevo, 1890-96, architect K. Ivekovic; destroyed in 1992), neoclassical (theater in Sarajevo, architect K. Parzik) and neo-Renaissance (National Museum, 1913, Parzhik; destroyed in 1992) styles. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, painters who studied abroad mastered the methods of modern painting. Most of the artists of Bosnia and Herzegovina worked in Serbia (painters J. Bijelić, N. Gvozdenović, sculptor S. Stojanović). In the 1920-30s, a group of local painters emerged, in whose work an appeal to folk life and native nature was combined with the use of plein air and post-impressionism techniques (S. Botsarich, V. Dimitrievich, I. Sheremet).
In the architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1920s and 30s there was a turn towards functionalism (metallurgical plant in Zenica). After 1945, the construction of modern industrial enterprises (in Zenica, Jablanica), residential and public buildings, a sports complex, and a university building (in Sarajevo) began. Since the 1960s, the search for plastic expression, close to brutalism, and the decorative use of local materials began (Skenderija sports center and the Museum of the People's Revolution in Sarajevo, the Razvitak department store in Mostar). In the visual arts, after 1945, monumental compositions were created on the themes of national history and the national liberation struggle (painting by I. Muezinović, V. Dimitriević, a monument at the partisan cemetery in Mostar by B. Bogdanovich, etc.). In the 2nd half of the 20th century, both realism (L. Lach, B. Shotra), and expressionism (Muezinovich, M. Verber), abstractionism (M. Korovin, E. Numankadich) and other avant-garde movements became widespread. In 1945, the School of Painting opened in Sarajevo, and in 1972, the Academy of Arts.
Lit.: Grabrijan D., Neidhardt J. Arhitektura Bosne i put u suvremeno. Ljubljana, 1957; Guide to collections of the regional museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina / S. Silic. Sarajevo, 1984.
Music
The basis of musical culture has traditionally been oral creativity. Medieval culture is of the minstrel type; the first mention of court musicians dates back to 1408. During the period of Turkish domination, oriental elements penetrated into the folk musical tradition - Slavic at its core; There was church music (Eastern and Western rites), Catholic musicians studied mainly in Italy. The most significant composer of this period is Franjo Bosanac (1st half of the 16th century, originally from Bosnia, lived in Venice). During the period of the Austro-Hungarian occupation, a musical culture of the European type began to develop; military bands and urban musical life played a large role in this process. In 1881, the first concerts in Bosnia and Herzegovina took place - in Banja Luka, then in Sarajevo. Foreign musicians began to arrive; in 1909, violinist B. Huberman gave a concert, and operetta troupes from Austria and Hungary performed. In 1886, the Men's Singing Union was organized in Sarajevo (existed until approximately 1918), which was led by J. Vancas for many years; In addition to German and Austrian music, works by Croatian, Slovenian, and Czech authors were performed. The first professional composer and conductor of Bosnia and Herzegovina is Czech-born F. Macejovski (lived in Banja Luka from 1900, in Sarajevo in 1905-38). At the beginning of the 20th century, the Czech L. Kuba began to study the musical folklore of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Local musicians united (on a national or confessional basis) into numerous musical societies.
The entry of Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (1918) contributed to the rise of musical culture. Regular concert life began in Sarajevo, the following were created: the National Theater (1919), where it had its own orchestra and the first national plays with music were staged, and from the 1928/29 season operas (originally Italian) were staged, the Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra (1923) . The National Theater also opened in Banja Luka (1930). Arrangements of folk songs and plays with music on local themes predominated in the composer's work. Among the composers: B. Kačerovski, B. Jungic, V. Milosevic, J. Pleciti, C. Richtman, A. Pordes. In 1941, musical organizations were closed.
In 1946, the Opera House opened in Sarajevo, on the stage of which operas by Yugoslav composers were staged; in 1948, the Symphony Orchestra of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was organized (since 1953, the Philharmonic Orchestra), in 1962 - the Symphony Orchestra of Radio and Television; since 1955, the Music Academy has operated . The folklore direction still prevailed in the composer's work, but pan-European trends also appeared - neoclassicism (D. Shkerl), avant-garde (V. Komadina). The tradition of choral performance has been preserved.
Lit.: Bosansko-Hercegovacka muzika // Muzicka enciklopedija. Zagreb, 1971. Kn. 1.
Theater
The national theatrical art of Bosnia and Herzegovina began to take shape in the 19th century. Both local troupes (for example, A. Banovich and his students) and foreign diplomats who organized private theater evenings contributed to the development of theatrical culture. The first theatrical performance in Bosnia (“Judith” by F. Hebbel) was performed in 1865 by an amateur troupe under the direction of S. Petranovich. In 1881-96 there was a “German Theater” in Sarajevo. In 1898, a mobile theater opened under the direction of M. Crnogorcevic, playing in the Serbian language (existed for 8 months). In 1898, actor D. Ginich created the “First Serbian Theater of Bosnia and Herzegovina” in Sarajevo, which was soon closed by the authorities of Austria-Hungary. The "Serbian Amateur Theater in Sarajevo", created in 1912, was closed for political reasons a year later. In December 1919, the National Theater was founded in Sarajevo under the direction of S. Brakus; among the first performances was “The Imaginary Invalid” by Moliere, staged by the country’s first professional director A. A. Vereshchagin (in the 1921/22 season he also successfully staged “The Tricks of Scapin” by Moliere, “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol, “The Living Corpse” "L.N. Tolstoy). During the 2nd World War, the theater was renamed the Croatian National Theater (in 1945 the original name was returned); in 1941-45 it was directed by playwright A. Muradbegovic. In 1930-1936, the actor and director R. Pregarz worked at the National Theater, staged 75 performances, including plays by W. Shakespeare, Moliere, P. Beaumarchais, F. Schiller, L. Pirandello, as well as M. Krlezhi and other Yugoslav authors. Theaters appeared in Banja Luka (1930), Mostar (1949), Tuzla (1949), Zenica (1950). In 1950, the Maly Theater (now “Chamber Theater 55”), as well as the Pionersky and Puppet Theater opened in Sarajevo, uniting in 1977 into a single group - the Children's Theater. In the 1990s, new theater groups were formed, including under the leadership of S. Plakal, and others. A significant contribution to the development of the performing arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina was made by theater workers and actors I. Korenic, I. Lesic, M. Bilac, R. Demirdzic, 3. Sokolovic, 3. Zrncic, R. Alvadzh, I. Fancovic and many others. Since 1960, the Festival of Small and Experimental Stages has been held, since 1984 - the International Festival “Sarajevo Winter”.
Lit.: Lesié J. Istorija jugoslavenske moderne rezije. Novi Sad, 1986.
V. N. Gorelov.
Movie
The first film show in Sarajevo took place in 1897 (demonstration of films by brothers L. and O. Lumiere). The earliest surviving film footage of Bosnia and Sarajevo was made in 1912 under the title A Journey Through Bosnia by London's Charles Urban Studios. The pioneer of cinema in Bosnia and Herzegovina was A. Valić, who managed the Apollo and Imperial cinemas in Sarajevo. In 1913-14, he made 5 films, including about the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the demonstrations that followed. The first feature films were the short “On the Border” (directed by B. Kosanovich) and the full-length “Major Ghost” (directed by N. Popovich; both 1951). Famous writers often acted as screenwriters (B. Copic, M. Selimovic, I. Samokovliya, M. Kovac, A. Sidran). Most of the films were produced by the Bosna Film company (many were joint productions with other Yugoslav republics or foreign partners). The founding of the Sutjeska Film company in the 1960s, which specialized in the production of documentaries and short films, led to the flourishing of these genres. The so-called Sarajevo school of documentary film gave the cinema of Bosnia and Herzegovina such directors as H. Krvavac, B. Tanovic, J. Ristic, M. Mutapčić, G. Šipovac, T. Janjic, P. Majchrovski, B. Cengic, V. Filipović . Along with them, I. Matic, N. Stojanovic and M. Idrizovic, who came from amateur cinema, as well as theater figures B. Draskovic and I. Lesic, played a significant role in the formation of the original cinema of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which received worldwide recognition. In 1981, the Academy of Performing Arts was founded in Sarajevo with the only acting department at that time (the directing department opened in 1989, and dramaturgy in 1994). Among the most significant films, the filming of which took place entirely or partially in Bosnia and Herzegovina: “Hanka” by S. Vorkapić (1955), “Shepherdess” (1962) and “Battle of the Neretva” (1969) by V. Bulajic, “Young fighters" (1967) and "The Role of My Family in the World Revolution" (1971) by B. Cengic, "The Smell of Quince" by M. Idrizovic (1982), "Woman and Landscape" by I. Matic (1975, released in 1989), “Here’s a little bit of soul” by A. Kenovich (1990), “Donkey Years” by N. Dizdarevich (1994). E. Kusturica also started working at the Bosna Film studio (“Do you remember Dolly Bell?”, 1981; “Father on a Business Trip,” 1985; “House for Hanging,” 1989), but with the outbreak of hostilities he left Sarajevo and continued working in Belgrade. The military conflict had a negative impact on the development of cinema. However, since 1995, the International Film Festival has been held in Sarajevo, and the post-war boom made the cinematography of Bosnia and Herzegovina one of the most notable in South-Eastern Europe at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries. The first post-war feature film was “A Perfect Circle” by A. Kenovich (1996), and the greatest success was the film “No Man’s Land” by D. Tanovic (2001, together with Italy, Slovenia, France, Great Britain, Belgium, Oscar Award, award at the Cannes International Film Festival and many others). Among the films of the early 2000s: “10 minutes” by A. Imamovich (2002, recognized as the best European short film of the year), “Summer in the Golden Valley” by S. Vuletic and “Remake” by D. Mustafic (both 2003), “ Bickford Cord" (2003) and "Days and Hours" (2004) by P. Zhalitsa.
Lit.: Filmska enciklopedija. Zagreb, 1986-1990. Vol. 1-2.
The official name is Bosnia and Herzegovina. Located in the southeastern part of Europe, in the west of the Balkan Peninsula. Area 51,129 km2. The population is approximately approx. 3.8 million people According to the latest census (1991), 4.377 million people lived in the country. As a result of the military conflict in 1992-95, the population decreased significantly. The official languages are Bossanian, Serbian, Croatian. The capital is Sarajevo (400 thousand people, 1991). The monetary unit is the convertible mark (CM).
Member of the UN (since 1992), OSCE (since 1992), Council of Europe (since 2002), etc.
Sights of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina is located between 15° and 20° east longitude and 46° and 42° north latitude. It has a narrow (approx. 15 km) access to the Adriatic Sea. The coastline is high, rocky, covered with islands.
It borders on the north, west and south with Croatia, on the east and southeast with Serbia and Montenegro.
The landscape is 90% mountainous. The mountains of the Dinaric system (highest point 2228 m) include two belts: the Bosnian Ore Mountains and the Dinaric Highlands. The largest rivers are the Sava (940 km), Drina (460 km), Bosna (308 km), Neretva (218 km). Plains - in the valleys of the Sava (southern edge of the Middle Danube Lowland) and Neretva.
The mountains are dominated by mountain-forest brown soils, podzolized to varying degrees; in the upper mountain belt there are mountain-meadow soils. In intermountain depressions, chernozem-like soils are common in places. The Sava River valley is dominated by chernozems combined with alluvial meadow soils.
OK. 40% of the territory is covered with deciduous and coniferous forests (beech, oak, pine, spruce). In the south there are evergreen shrubs. Fauna: deer, chamois, wild goats, bears, wolves, foxes, wild boars, reptiles (lizards, snakes), the most common fish is trout.
Minerals: brown coal, iron and manganese ores, bauxite, salt; hydro resources.
In the north, the climate is temperate continental (600-800 mm of precipitation per year), in the mountains it is cool and humid (1500 - 2500 mm of precipitation per year). In summer there is frequent fog and rain, in winter there is heavy snowfall. In the south, under the influence of the Adriatic, the Mediterranean, mild, warm (hot in summer) climate prevails.
Population of Bosnia and Herzegovina
There is no complete information about the size and structure of the population. During the military conflict of 1992-95, approx. 250 thousand people, St. went missing. 30 thousand people, approximately 2 million people became refugees and displaced persons.
Infant mortality 13 people. per 1000 newborns; The average life expectancy for men is 71 years, for women - 76 years.
Men - 48.7%, women - 51.3%; urban population - 43%. Age structure of the population: under 14 years old - 17.8%, 15-64 years old - 70.5%, 65 years old and older - 11.7%. The retirement age is 65 years. 95% have primary education, 57% have secondary education.
Ethnic composition: state-forming peoples Bosniaks (Slavs professing Islam) - 43.6%, Serbs - 31.4%, Croats - 17.3%, others - 7.7% (Montenegrins, Macedonians, Albanians, Gypsies, Rusyns, Jews and etc.).
The most common languages that coincide with the state ones are: Bossanian, Serbian, Croatian.
Main religions: Islam (Sunni), Orthodoxy, Catholicism.
History of Bosnia and Herzegovina
The oldest population is the Illyrians. From the 1st century AD under the rule of Rome, in the 6th century. - Byzantium. In the 6th-7th centuries. the territory was inhabited by Slavs. In the 12th century The Bosnian Principality was formed, headed by a ban (prince) - the most famous is Ban Kulin (1180-1204). On the territory of the principality, Bogomilism became widespread, on the basis of which the so-called Bogomilism arose. Bosnian church. Medieval Bosnia reached its greatest prosperity under Stefan I Tvrtko (1353-91), who significantly expanded his possessions and proclaimed himself king. A region in the south was annexed to the Kingdom of Bosnia, which later received the name Herzegovina (in the 15th century, its ruler Stjepan Vukcic, who recognized fief dependence on the German king, received the title of duke from the latter).
From 1463 the territory of Bosnia, and from 1482 - of Herzegovina under the Ottoman yoke. A significant part of the population converted to Islam.
Resistance to Turkish rule acquired a particularly wide scope in the 19th century, its culmination was the Herzegovinian-Bosnian uprising of 1875-78.
By decision of the Berlin Congress in 1878, Belgium and Germany were occupied by Austria (annexed by it in 1908). The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina caused an acute political crisis in international relations. The assassination of the Austrian Archduke F. Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo served as the reason for the 1st World War. Since 1918, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (since 1929 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In 1941-45 it was occupied by Nazi Germany and included in the so-called. Independent State of Croatia.
In 1945-92 - as part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a republic. In 1992, independence was declared in Bosnia and Herzegovina based on the results of the referendum (the Serbian community, which boycotted the referendum, created its own entity - the Republika Srpska). These events caused an escalation of interethnic contradictions, which escalated into a large-scale military conflict that lasted until the fall of 1995. Military actions were stopped thanks to the active efforts of the international community. In accordance with the agreements reached in Dayton (USA) in Paris, on December 14, 1995, the warring parties signed the “General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina,” also known as the Dayton Agreement.
Government structure and political system of Bosnia and Herzegovina
The process of state building in Bosnia and Herzegovina is at its initial stage. This is a state with a unique form of structure and government, combining elements of a federation and confederation (the institution of collective presidency, the presence of two armies, etc.). The Constitution adopted in 1995 is in force (part of the Dayton Agreement).
Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two Entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.
The largest cities: Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla, Mostar, Zenica.
The function of the head of state is performed by a collective body - the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is made up of three representatives of the state-forming peoples. The highest legislative body is the Parliamentary Assembly (parliament), consisting of two chambers (the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives). The highest executive body is the Council of Ministers.
Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina: B. Paravac (Serb), S. Tihich (Bosniak) and D. Covic (Croat) (2003).
Collegium of the House of Peoples: V. Jukic (Croat), G. Milojevic (Serb) and M. Pamuk (Bosniak).
Collegium of the House of Representatives: S. Jafarovic (Bosniak), N. Spirich (Serb) and M. Raguzh (Croat).
Members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the leadership of the parliamentary chambers rotate in place of the presiding officer every 8 months.
The head of the Council of Ministers is A. Terzic.
Members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and deputies of the House of Representatives are elected by direct secret ballot separately in each entity (Serbian representative in the Presidency and 1/3 of the deputies of the House of Representatives from the Republika Srpska, representatives of Bosniaks and Croats in the Presidency and 2/3 of the deputies of the House of Representatives from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina). The term of office is 4 years (the current composition was elected in 2002). The House of Peoples (5 Serbs, 5 Bosniaks and 5 Croats) is formed by the parliaments of the Entities.
Entities (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska) have broad powers with elements of state independence and have their own Constitutions. The functions of the executive and legislative powers in each of the Entities are carried out by the president, government and parliament, which act virtually independently of the central authorities.
The party system is built on a national basis. The leading parties represent Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks: Serbian Democratic Party, Croatian Democratic Commonwealth, Democratic Action Party. Attempts are being made to create multi-ethnic parties (the most influential of them is the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina).
Domestic policy is aimed at implementing the Dayton Agreement, which provides for the strengthening of state institutions, the return of refugees, the settlement of interethnic relations, and the modernization of the economy. The wide international presence (peacekeeping military contingent, the institution of the High Representative, etc.) has a significant impact on the internal life of the country.
The main priorities of foreign policy are integration into European and Euro-Atlantic structures and regional cooperation.
The armed forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina are represented by two independent armies of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska in a ratio of 2: 1. The total strength is approx. 12 thousand people
Bosnia and Herzegovina has had diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation since 1995.
Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina
GDP - 5.1 billion US dollars, GDP per capita - 1194 US dollars, number of employed - 625 thousand people, unemployed - 435.5 thousand people, unemployment rate 41%, inflation - 0.2% (2001).
Sectoral structure of the economy (by contribution to GDP): industry - 25.3%, agriculture - 11.9%, service sector - 62.8%
The most important industries: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of electricity and building materials, metalworking, textile and leather and footwear, petrochemical, woodworking, food.
Agriculture: crop production, incl. grain farming (corn, wheat), gardening, vegetable growing, viticulture, industrial crops (flax, tobacco, olives, sugar beets); pasture livestock farming (cattle, sheep).
Transport: railways (1031 km, traffic volume 3.2 million tons), asphalt roads (3788 km), airports in Sarajevo (280 thousand people per year), Mostar (100 thousand people), Banja Luka (40 thousand people), Tuzla (special transportation).
Communications - telephone, postal, telegraphic, teletype, radio, Internet, etc.
The tourism sector is in the recovery stage (before the military conflict, tourism revenues amounted to 2.5% of GDP).
Economic policy is focused on two directions: restoration of the economy destroyed during hostilities and its reform on a market basis. Social problems are solved largely through foreign financial assistance.
The Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina pursues a policy independent of the Bosnian authorities aimed at firmly supporting the exchange rate of the local currency KM to the euro. As a result, there is virtually no inflation in the country, which is achieved essentially by non-economic methods. The banking system is in its infancy (there are 40 commercial banks, some of them with foreign capital).
The state budget (530 million KM for 2003) is formed on the basis of contributions from entities and performs limited functions: servicing external debt and financing the activities of national bodies. In the tax sphere, a reform process is underway with the aim of introducing a unified value added tax in the country. Domestic debt - approx. 8 billion KM, external - 5 billion KM.
The average salary is 686 KM.
The foreign economic sphere is distinguished by a significant trade deficit (exports - 2.1 billion KM, imports - 8.2 billion KM, 2002). Export structure - raw and processed aluminum, electricity, timber, textiles, leather goods; import - oil and oil products, food industry products, machinery and equipment, electronics. Main trading partners: Croatia, Italy, Germany, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
Science and culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a three-level education system. The first stage is a basic compulsory 8-year comprehensive school, the second is a 4-year gymnasium or secondary vocational school, the third is universities (4-5 years of study). The main universities are located in Sarajevo, Banja Luka and Mostar. The largest scientific center is the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed under the influence of various traditions. The surviving ancient buildings bear the imprint of the Roman era; the Middle Ages are distinguished by a mixture of Byzantine and Central European styles. Under the Turks, numerous mosques, madrassas and bridges were created, many of which became widely known architectural monuments (Begova and Ali Pashina mosques in Sarajevo, the Old Bridge in Mostar, the bridge in Visegrad, etc.). For con. 19 - beginning 20th centuries characterized by imitation of Eastern and Renaissance culture (the building of the city hall "Vecnica" in Sarajevo). Along with mosques, majestic Orthodox and Catholic churches have been created here (the Church of the Holy Virgin and the Cathedral in Sarajevo). During the military conflict, a significant number of architectural and historical monuments on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina were completely or partially destroyed.
Bosnian literature and art have been significantly influenced by the country's complex and dramatic history. The best works are devoted to a philosophical understanding of the difficult fate of the Bosnian peoples (novels by Nobel laureate I. Andrić and M. Selimovic, paintings by I. Muezinović, etc.). The work of internationally recognized film directors E. Kusturica and D. Tanovic is associated with Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The goals of the post-war restoration of the cultural traditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina are served by international events held annually in Sarajevo: the music festivals “Sarajevo Winter” and “Nights of Bascarsija”, the festival of experimental theaters, the Sarajevo Film Festival.
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