Finland, where do coniferous forests grow? Finland (Republic of Finland). Flora and fauna of Finland

(self-name - Suomi) - a state in northern Europe. By land it borders on Norway in the north, Russia in the northeast and east, and Sweden in the northwest. It is separated from Germany and Poland by the Baltic Sea. Beyond the Gulf of Finland lie Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Not a single point, even the most remote point of the state, is located further than 300 km from the sea. Almost a quarter of Finland's territory is located beyond the Arctic Circle.

The name of the country comes from the Swedish Finland - “country of the Finns”.

Official name: Republic of Finland (Suomi).

Capital:

The area of ​​the land: 338,145 sq. km

Total Population: 5.3 million people

Administrative division: Finland is divided into 12 states (provinces) and 450 self-governing communes (kunta), the Åland Islands have autonomous status.

Form of government: Parliamentary republic.

Head of State: President, elected for a term of 6 years.

Population composition: 74% - Finns, 10% - Russians, 7% - Estonians, 3.7% - Swedes, 3% - Sami, 2% - Gypsies, 1.5% - Somalis, 0.5% - Jews 0.3% - Tatars

Official language: Finnish and Swedish.

Religion: 90% are the Evangelical Lutheran Church, 1% are Orthodox.

Internet domain: .fi, .ax (for Åland Islands)

Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz

Country dialing code: +358

Country barcode: 640-649

Climate

Moderate continental, in the north it experiences a powerful “warming” influence of the North Atlantic Current, in the southwest it is transitional from temperate marine to continental. Characterized by mild, snowy winters and fairly warm summers. The highest temperature in summer is from +25 C to +30 C, and the average temperature is about +18 C, while the water temperature in shallow lakes and on the sea coast quickly reaches +20 C and above.

In winter, temperatures often drop below -20 C, but average temperatures range from -3 C in the south (with frequent thaws) to -14 C in the north of the country. Above the Arctic Circle, the sun does not set below the horizon in summer for 73 days, and in winter there comes the polar night (“kaamos”), lasting up to 50 days. Precipitation is 400-700 mm. per year, there is snow in the south of the country for 4 - 5 months, in the north - about 7 months. However, the west coast receives less precipitation than the inland lake regions. The wettest month is August, the driest period is April-May.

Geography

A state in Northern Europe, in the east of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It borders on Russia in the south and east, Norway in the north, and Sweden in the west. The southern coast is washed by the waters of the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia of the Baltic Sea.

Finland also includes the Åland Islands (Ahvenanmaa archipelago) - about 6.5 thousand small low islands off the southwestern coast of the country.

Most of the country is occupied by hilly-moraine plains with numerous rock outcrops and an extensive network of lakes and rivers (there are 187,888 lakes in total in the country!). Up to 1/3 of the entire surface of the country is swampy. In the north-west of the country stretches the eastern tip of the Scandinavian Mountains (the highest point is the city of Haltia, 1328 m). The shores of the Baltic Sea are low and dotted with numerous islands and skerries. The total area of ​​Finland is 338 thousand square meters. km.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

Almost 2/3 of Finland's territory is covered with forests, supplying valuable raw materials for the wood processing and pulp and paper industries. The country is home to northern and southern taiga forests, and in the extreme southwest there are mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests. Maple, elm, ash and hazel penetrate up to 62° N, apple trees are found at 64° N. Coniferous species extend to 68°N. Forest-tundra and tundra extend to the north.

A third of Finland's territory is covered by wetlands (including wetland forests).

Animal world

The fauna of Finland is very poor. Usually the forests are inhabited by elk, squirrel, hare, fox, otter, and less commonly, muskrat. Bear, wolf and lynx are found only in the eastern regions of the country. The world of birds is diverse (up to 250 species, including black grouse, capercaillie, hazel grouse, partridge). In the rivers and lakes there are salmon, trout, whitefish, perch, pike perch, pike, vendace, and in the Baltic Sea - herring.

Attractions

First of all, Finland is famous for its rivers and lakes, which turn it into a real “mecca” of water tourism and fishing in Europe, as well as for its carefully protected nature, beautiful wildlife and excellent opportunities for winter sports. In summer, the magnificent coast of the Baltic Sea and thousands of lakes provide good opportunities to swim just a few hundred kilometers from the Arctic Circle, and interesting hiking or cycling trips, hunting and rafting will not leave any tourist indifferent.

Banks and currency

The official currency of Finland is the Euro. One Euro is equal to 100 cents. Banknotes in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 Euros, coins in denominations of 1, 2 Euros and 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 cents are in use.

Banks are usually open on weekdays from 9.15 to 16.15, weekends are Saturday and Sunday. All banks are closed on holidays.

You can exchange currency in banks, in some post offices ("Postipankki"), in many hotels, seaports and at Helsinki Airport (the most favorable rate is in bank branches), often you must present a passport for exchange. Cash can also be obtained from ATMs. Credit cards from the world's leading systems have become widespread - you can use them to make payments in most hotels, shops, restaurants, car rental offices and even in some taxis. Most banks can also cash traveler's checks.

Useful information for tourists

Regular store opening hours are from 10.00 to 18.00 on weekdays and from 10.00 to 15.00 on Saturdays. In big cities, many large department stores are open until 20.00 on weekdays.

In Finland, traffic is on the right. Bus service operates on approximately 90% of roads in Finland. Express buses provide reliable and fast connections between densely populated areas of the country.

Finland occupies the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The south of the country is washed by the Baltic Sea. Small islands surround most of the coast. Thanks to them, the land is better protected from the wind. Most of the country's territory is covered with lakes and rivers, which are surrounded by forests. About a third of the territory is occupied by swamps. Peat is very rarely used for fuel, most often it is used in the form of bedding for livestock.

The country's landscape is characterized by plains. Only in northwestern Finland is part of the Scandinavian Mountains present. The highest mountain in Finland is 1328 meters, bordering Norway. During the Ice Age, the country was subject to complete glaciation. Glaciers filled most of the basins with their sediments and smoothed out the hills. The territory sagged under the weight of the ice, and over time the Yoldian Sea was formed. It was the predecessor of the modern Baltic. Time has passed, the land has risen, but most of the basins are still occupied by lakes and swamps.

Narrow elongated ridges composed of pebbles and fluvio-glacial sands have remained since the Ice Age. They are used to build roads in the wetlands that occupy most of the country. Glacial ridges cross valleys and block rivers, which contributes to the formation of waterfalls and rapids. If the south of Finland is more characterized by sea coasts with small islands and cliffs, then the northern part of the country is dominated by dense coniferous forests, which cover the central part of the country.

There are as many as 35 national parks with rare and valuable animals in Finland. Finnish forests are valuable raw materials for the pulp, paper and processing industries. In the southwest there are a lot of mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. The forests of the country are inhabited by hares, foxes, squirrels, moose, otters, and you can rarely see a muskrat. The forests in the east of the country are rich in bears, wolves and lynxes. Birds are represented by wood grouse, partridge, hazel grouse, black goose, crane, and falcon. The variety of birds is 250 species. Salmon, trout, perch, pike perch, pike, and herring live in the water elements.

Lakes occupy 9% of the territory of Finland, there are about 190,000 of them. Lake Saimaa serves as a transport for timber to inland areas where there are no railways or roads. Lakes Päijänne, Näsijärvi and Oulujärvi with their rivers also play a role in the country's water communication system. The country has built a lot of artificial canals that connect lakes and rivers, bypassing waterfalls. The Saimaa Canal is the most functional; it connects the Gulf of Finland and Lake Saimaa.

All of Finland is represented by a labyrinth of emerald-turquoise lakes and islands. The water chain from west to east is 400 km long. This is the Lakes region of the country.

Based on materials from the website www.norsktour.com.

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Grape

In gardens and personal plots, you can choose a warmer place for planting grapes, for example, on the sunny side of the house, garden pavilion, veranda. It is recommended to plant grapes along the border of the site. The vines formed in one line will not take up much space and at the same time will be well lit from all sides. Near buildings, grapes must be placed so that they are not exposed to water flowing from the roofs. On level areas it is necessary to make ridges with good drainage due to drainage furrows. Some gardeners, following the experience of their colleagues from the western regions of the country, dig deep planting holes and fill them with organic fertilizers and fertilized soil. The holes, dug in waterproof clay, are a kind of closed vessel that fills with water during the monsoon rains. In fertile soil, the root system of grapes develops well at first, but as soon as waterlogging begins, it suffocates. Deep holes can play a positive role on soils where good natural drainage, permeable subsoil is provided, or reclamation artificial drainage is possible. Planting grapes

You can quickly restore an outdated grape bush using the layering method (“katavlak”). For this purpose, healthy vines of a neighboring bush are placed in grooves dug to the place where the dead bush used to grow, and covered with earth. The top is brought to the surface, from which a new bush then grows. Lignified vines are laid on layering in the spring, and green ones - in July. They are not separated from the mother bush for two to three years. A frozen or very old bush can be restored by short pruning to healthy above-ground parts or by pruning to the “black head” of an underground trunk. In the latter case, the underground trunk is freed from the ground and completely cut down. Not far from the surface, new shoots grow from dormant buds, due to which a new bush is formed. Neglected and severely frost-damaged grape bushes are restored due to stronger fatty shoots formed in the lower part of the old wood and the removal of weakened sleeves. But before removing the sleeve, a replacement is formed. Grape care

A gardener starting to grow grapes needs to thoroughly study the structure of the grapevine and the biology of this interesting plant. Grapes are vine (climbing) plants and require support. But it can spread along the ground and take root, as is observed with Amur grapes in a wild state. The roots and above-ground part of the stem grow quickly, branch strongly and reach large sizes. Under natural conditions, without human intervention, a branched bush of grapes grows with many vines of different orders, which begins to bear fruit late and produces crops irregularly. In cultivation, grapes are shaped and the bushes are given a shape that is easy to care for, ensuring a high yield of high-quality bunches. Vine

Schisandra

In the literature devoted to climbing plants, lianas, the methods of preparing planting holes and the planting itself are unnecessarily complicated. It is proposed to dig trenches and holes up to 80 cm deep, lay drainage from broken bricks and shards, install a pipe to the drainage for feeding, fill it with special soil, etc. When planting several bushes in collective gardens, similar preparation is still possible; but the recommended pit depth is not suitable for the Far East, where the thickness of the root layer reaches 30 cm at best and is most often underlain by waterproof subsoil. No matter what kind of drainage is laid, a deep hole will inevitably turn out to be a closed vessel where water will accumulate during the monsoon rains, and this will entail damping off and rotting of the roots from lack of air. And the roots of actinidia and lemongrass vines, as already noted, spread in the taiga in the surface layer of soil. Planting lemongrass

Schisandra chinensis, or schisandra, has several names - lemon tree, red grapes, gomisha (Japanese), cochinta, kozyanta (Nanai), kolchita (Ulch), usimtya (Udege), uchampu (Oroch). In terms of structure, systemic relationship, center of origin and distribution, Schisandra chinensis has nothing in common with the real citrus plant lemon, but all its organs (roots, shoots, leaves, flowers, berries) exude the aroma of lemon, hence the name Schisandra. The schisandra vine that clings or wraps around a support, along with Amur grapes and three types of actinidia, is an original plant of the Far Eastern taiga. Its fruits, like real lemons, are too sour to be consumed fresh, but they have medicinal properties and a pleasant aroma, and this has attracted a lot of attention to it. The taste of Schisandra chinensis berries improves somewhat after frost. Local hunters who consume such fruits claim that they relieve fatigue, invigorate the body and improve vision. The consolidated Chinese pharmacopoeia, compiled back in 1596, states: “the fruit of Chinese lemongrass has five tastes, classified as the first category of medicinal substances. The pulp of lemongrass is sour and sweet, the seeds are bitter and astringent, and in general the taste of the fruit is salty. Thus, All five tastes are present in it." Grow lemongrass

Finland's soils are predominantly podzolic and are subject to leaching due to moisture infiltration, a result of slow surface runoff following heavy snowmelt in early summer. The most fertile soils, formed on post-glacial marine clays and silts in coastal areas, occupy only 3% of the total area. In forested areas, the soils are usually thin, rocky and therefore unsuitable for agricultural use. In the interior regions of the country, composed of boulder loams, cultivation of the land is difficult, since before plowing it is necessary to clear the field of boulders.

Many soils are characterized by significant acidity, which contributes to the accumulation of ferruginous compounds in the form of ortsteins (round ferromanganese soil nodules with a diameter of 1-10 mm, individual or forming a dense horizon, formed under conditions of variable water-air or redox regimes) or ortzands (a compacted cemented layer in sandy soils, rusty, red-brown or coffee colored). Most of the fields have an open drainage system, which due to shortage of labor is not properly maintained. These open drainage ditches, sometimes spaced 10 m apart from each other, take up a lot of useful land; According to some estimates, these ditches occupy over 10% of the arable area, and replacing them with pottery pipes would significantly increase the area of ​​\u200b\u200bcultivable land and at the same time reduce the spread of weeds (O'Dell, 1962).

Most of Finland has climatic conditions favorable for the growth of coniferous forests, the regeneration of which occurs naturally. Low hills rising above the average surface level, due to the severity of the climate (especially in the north of the country), are devoid of woody vegetation. Other areas do not have continuous forest cover due to numerous bedrock outcrops and extensive swamps. Unfavorable runoff conditions in a significant part of the country contribute to waterlogging and widespread peat bogs, with the exception of areas with rugged terrain. Soil saturation with moisture leads to a decrease in fertility and inhibits the growth of trees. Many high bogs are overgrown with oppressed pine trees, while lowland bogs are characterized by spruce, the growth of which is also slowed down. In the forests there are areas that resemble meadows, but in reality in most cases these are swamps overgrown with sedge, which gives them an external resemblance to meadows.

In the past, forests were burned for arable land; if these lands were subsequently abandoned, they turned into meadows and alder forests or were again overgrown with pine and birch.

Finnish botanists distinguish the following vegetation zones (from south to north): oak, maple, linden, southern coniferous, northern coniferous, birch and alpine. The species composition of both higher and mosses becomes less diverse towards the north, where climatic conditions are less favorable and the soils are less fertile (O'Dell, 1962).

The country's territory is mainly covered by such natural zones as taiga, tundra and forest-tundra.

The fauna of Finland is very poor. Especially few large forest animals have survived. In Lapland, there are still herds of wild reindeer in some places. Typically, moose, squirrel, hare, fox, otter are common in forests, and muskrat is also common. There are very few bears, wolves, and lynxes left, which live only in the east of the country. The world of birds is quite diverse - there are up to 250 species here, including such as black grouse, wood grouse, hazel grouse, and partridge. There are a lot of fish in rivers and lakes: salmon, whitefish, perch, catfish, pike perch, pike, vendace and others. The resources of marine fish, especially herring, are significant (Maksakovsky, Tokarev, 1981).

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The content of the article

FINLAND, Republic of Finland, a state in northern Europe. Its northern part is located beyond the Arctic Circle. Finland borders Sweden in the west, Norway in the north, and Russia in the east. The country's maritime borders run along the Gulf of Finland in the south and the Gulf of Bothnia in the west. The country's area is 338,145 square meters. km. Population 5 million 250 thousand people (estimated for 2009). The greatest length of the country from north to south is 1160 km, the maximum width is 540 km. The total length of the coastline is 1070 km. Off the coast of Finland there are approx. 180 thousand small islands.

Finland is a country of vast forests and numerous lakes, ultra-modern buildings and ancient castles. Forests constitute its main wealth; they are called “the green gold of Finland.” Finland is famous for its achievements in the fields of architecture and industrial design. Being one of the youngest countries in Europe, Finland has nevertheless accumulated rich cultural traditions.

Finland is often classified as one of the Scandinavian countries with which it maintains close ties. After 700 years of Swedish rule, it was ceded to Russia in 1809, receiving the status of the Grand Duchy of Finland. In December 1917 Finland declared independence. From the end of World War II until 1991, it was connected with the USSR by strong economic ties. After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, Finland refocused on establishing closer ties with Western Europe. Since 1995 Finland has been a member of the European Union.

NATURE

Terrain.

Finland is a hilly and flat country. Absolute heights usually do not exceed 300 m. The highest point of the country, Mount Haltia (1328 m), is located in the extreme northwest, on the border with Norway. Geologically, Finland is located within the Baltic crystalline shield. During the Ice Age it was subject to glaciation. Glaciers smoothed the hills and filled most of the basins with their sediments. Under the weight of the ice, the territory sank, and after the degradation of glaciation, the Ioldian Sea was formed, the predecessor of the modern Baltic. Despite the rise of land, many basins are still occupied by lakes and swamps. This is where the name of the country Suomi came from (suo - “swamp”). From the legacy of the Ice Age, chains of eskers clearly stand out - narrow elongated ridges composed of fluvio-glacial sands and pebbles. They were used to build roads through the swampy lowlands that occupy most of the country. Ridges of glacial sediments (moraines) block many valleys and dammed rivers, contributing to the fragmentation of flow and the formation of many rapids and waterfalls. Finland has significant reserves of water energy.

Climate.

Since the entire country lies north of 60°N latitude, the days are long and cool in summer and short and cold in winter. In the summer in southern Finland, the day length is 19 hours, and in the far north the sun does not set beyond the horizon for 73 days, which is why Finland is called the “land of the midnight sun.” Average July temperatures are 17–18°C in the south and 14–15°C in the north. The average temperatures of the coldest month, February, are –13–14° C in the north and from –8° C to –4° C in the south. Proximity to the sea has a moderating effect on temperatures. Frosts occur at any time of the year, even in the south of the country. The average annual precipitation is 450 mm in the north and 700 mm in the south.

Water resources.

In Finland there are approx. 190 thousand lakes, occupying 9% of its area. The most famous lake. Saimaa in the southeast, which is important for timber rafting and transportation of goods in inland areas not provided with railways and roads. Lakes Päijänne in the south, Näsijärvi in ​​the southwest and Oulujärvi in ​​central Finland, together with the rivers, also play an important role in water communication. Numerous small canals connect the country's rivers and lakes, sometimes bypassing waterfalls. The most important is the Saimaa Canal, which connects Lake Saimaa with the Gulf of Finland near Vyborg (part of the canal passes through the territory of the Leningrad Region).

Flora and fauna.

Almost 2/3 of Finland's territory is covered with forests, supplying valuable raw materials for the wood processing and pulp and paper industries. The country is home to northern and southern taiga forests, and in the extreme southwest there are mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. Maple, elm, ash and hazel penetrate up to 62° N, apple trees are found at 64° N. Coniferous species extend to 68°N. Forest-tundra and tundra extend to the north.

A third of Finland's territory is covered by wetlands (including wetland forests). Peat is widely used as bedding for livestock and much less frequently for fuel. Reclamation of swamps has been carried out in a number of areas.

The fauna of Finland is very poor. Usually the forests are inhabited by elk, squirrel, hare, fox, otter, and less commonly, muskrat. Bear, wolf and lynx are found only in the eastern regions of the country. The world of birds is diverse (up to 250 species, including black grouse, capercaillie, hazel grouse, partridge). In rivers and lakes there are salmon, trout, whitefish, perch, pike perch, pike, vendace, and in the Baltic Sea - herring.

POPULATION

Ethnic composition and language.

There are two different peoples living in Finland - Finns and Swedes. Their languages ​​- Finnish and Swedish - are officially recognized as state languages. The main part of the population is Finns - a people of Finno-Ugric origin. In 1997, only 5.8% of the country's population considered Swedish their native language (versus 6.3% in 1980). The Swedish-speaking population is mainly concentrated in the coastal areas in the west and south of the country and on the Åland Islands. National minorities include the Sami (about 1.7 thousand people) living in Lapland. Some of them still lead a nomadic life in areas located north of the Arctic Circle.

Religion.

The Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church has the status of a state religion. Almost 87% of the country's residents belong to it. In 1993, adherents of other faiths made up only 2% of the population, of which about half, including many Sami, were Orthodox. The Orthodox Church is also recognized as a state church and receives subsidies. The country has small communities of Jehovah's Witnesses, the Finnish Free Church and Seventh-day Adventists. 10% of the population finds it difficult to indicate their religious affiliation.

Number and distribution of the population.

In 2009, 5,250,275 thousand people lived in Finland. Since the mid-1960s, population growth has been very slow due to low birth rates and significant emigration of Finnish workers (mainly to Sweden). In the post-war years, the birth rate fell continuously down to 12.2 per 1 thousand people in 1973, then it increased slightly and in 1990 reached 13.1 per 1 thousand people, but in 2004 it fell again to 10.56. Mortality in the post-war period ranged from 9 to 10 per 1 thousand people, in 2004 it was 9.69 per 1000 people. From 1970 to 1980, population growth averaged 0.4% per year, and in 2004 - 0.18%, as immigration increased slightly and emigration remained at the same level. The average life expectancy in Finland for men is 76 years, and for women – 83.

The population is mainly concentrated in the coastal and southern regions of Finland. The highest population density is found on the coast of the Gulf of Finland, the southwestern coast near Turku and some areas located directly north and east of Helsinki - around Tampere, Hämeenlinna, Lahti and other cities that are connected by canals and rivers to the coast. The latest shifts in population distribution are closely related to the industrial development of the interior regions. Many central regions and almost the entire North remain sparsely populated.

Cities.

In most cities in Finland the population does not exceed 70 thousand people. The exceptions are the capital city of Helsinki (564,521 thousand inhabitants in 2006), Espoo (227,472 thousand in 2005), Tampere (202,972 thousand - 2005), Turku (174,824 thousand - 2005). At the end of the 1990s, the population of the cities of Vantaa (171.3 thousand), Oulu (113.6 thousand), Lahti (95.8 thousand), Kuopio (85.8 thousand), Pori (76.6 thousand) ), Jyväskylä, Kotka, Lappeenranta, Vaasa and Joensuu (from 76.2 thousand to 45.4 thousand). Many cities are surrounded by vast forests. In south-central Finland, the cities of Tampere, Lahti and Hämeenlinna form a large industrial complex. The two largest cities in Finland - Helsinki and Turku - are located on the sea coast.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Political system.

Finland is a republic. The main document defining its state structure is the constitution of 2001, which significantly modernized the first constitution adopted in 1919. The supreme executive power belongs to the president, elected for a six-year term by direct popular vote (since 1988). Previously, he was elected by the Electoral College. The president has broad powers: he appoints and dismisses the prime minister and members of the government; in addition, it approves laws and has the right of relative veto. The president is the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces and directs its foreign policy, deciding issues of war and peace with the consent of parliament. The President appoints a person representing a party or coalition to form a government.

Executive power is vested in the State Council (Cabinet of Ministers) of 16 members, headed by the Prime Minister. The government must have the support of the parliamentary majority when making decisions on fundamental issues. If no party has a majority, the government is formed on a coalition basis.

The parliament is unicameral. It consists of 200 deputies elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term by universal suffrage. All adult citizens have the right to vote. Parliament concentrates all legislative power and has the power to approve all appointments and ratify treaties and other international agreements.

In the Finnish legal system, primary proceedings are based on a network of district courts (for rural areas) and municipal courts (for cities). District courts consist of 5-7 jurors and a judge who presides over the sessions and he alone has the right to pronounce verdicts, sometimes contrary to the unanimous opinion of the jury. Sessions of municipal courts are conducted by the burgomaster (mayor) with two or more judicial assistants. For appellate proceedings, there are six appellate courts in different parts of the country, consisting of several judges (three of them form a quorum). The Supreme Court is located in Helsinki. In some cases it conducts primary proceedings, but usually considers requests for clemency, hears appeals and decides questions about the constitutionality of certain laws and actions. The judicial system includes a high administrative court and several special courts, for example for land, labor and insurance matters. The courts are subordinate to the Ministry of Justice, which, however, does not interfere in court decisions. The police are under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior. The activities of both the judiciary and the police are controlled by parliament.

Local control.

Administratively, Finland has been divided into 6 provinces (lani) since the end of 1997, which are governed by governors appointed by the president. The province of Ahvenanmaa (Åland Islands), with a predominantly Swedish population, enjoys broad autonomy. It has its own parliament and flag, and is represented in the parliament of the entire country by one deputy. The lowest administrative-territorial unit - the community - is responsible for municipal services and collects its own tax. In 1997, there were 78 urban and 443 rural communities in the country. Communities are governed by councils, whose members are elected for four-year terms by proportional representation.

Political parties.

The Social Democratic Party of Finland (SDPF) relies on the support of industrial workers and employees. The Finnish Social Democrats, like other socialist parties in Europe, have essentially abandoned their original goal of transferring industry to state ownership, but continue to advocate economic planning and improvements in the social security system. Prominent SDPF figure Mauno Koivisto served two terms as President of Finland (1982–1994). He was replaced by Martti Ahtisaari (also a Social Democrat). The Democratic People's Union of Finland (DSNF), formerly a pro-Soviet coalition of left-wing parties, was until 1990 influenced by the Communist Party of Finland (CPF), which since the 1960s has been divided into a moderate “majority” and a Stalinist “minority.” In 1990, the DSNF merged with other leftist groups to form the Finnish Left Union (LFF). The Finnish Center Party (PFC, until 1965 - the Agrarian Union, until 1988 - the Center Party) has been part of almost every coalition since 1947. President Urho Kekkonen (from 1956 to 1981) emerged from its ranks. This party played a leading role in the coalition government from 1991 to 1995. The PFC represents the interests of farmers, but is increasingly supported by the urban population. The conservative National Coalition Party (NCP) opposes government control of the economy but advocates expanding social programs. The Swedish People's Party (SNP) reflects the interests of the Swedish-speaking population. The Finnish Country Party (SPF) split from the Agrarian Union in 1959 and gained significant influence in the late 1960s, reflecting the opposition movement of small farmers. Established in the late 1970s, the Green Union of Finland (NGF), which advocates environmental protection, has been permanently represented in parliament since 1983, and in 1995 became part of the coalition government. This is the first time the green movement has achieved such success in Europe.

From 1966 to 1991, the SDPF was the most influential party, receiving between 23% and 29% of the vote. It was followed by DSNF, NKP and PFC, each with between 14% and 21% of the votes. In the 1960s and 1970s, the government coalition was usually led by the SDPF or PFC. Communists participated in the government in 1966–1971, 1975–1976 and 1977–1982. In the 1987 parliamentary elections, non-socialist parties received a majority of votes (for the first time since 1946), although representatives of the SDPF entered the government led by the NKP, following the traditional Finnish policy of compromise. An anti-socialist orientation also manifested itself in the 1991 elections, when the SDPF retreated to second place and the PFC formed a government with the participation of representatives of the NKP, SPF and the Christian Union (CU). In the 1995 elections, the SDPF again took first place and formed a coalition government with the NKP, LSF, SNP and SZF.

Armed forces.

According to the terms of the peace treaty of 1947, the armed forces of Finland were not to exceed 41.9 thousand people. After the unification of Germany in 1990, Finland itself began to regulate the size of its army. In 1997, the country's armed forces numbered 32.8 thousand people, of which 75% were conscripts. There were approx. in stock. 700 thousand persons who have undergone military training. The navy has less than 60 vessels, including 2 corvettes, 11 missile carriers, 10 patrol vessels and 7 minelayers. The air force consists of three fighter squadrons and one transport squadron.

Military expenditures for the 1998–1999 fiscal year amounted to $1.8 million, or 2% of GDP.

Foreign policy.

According to the peace treaty of 1947 and the agreement of 1948 on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance between the USSR and Finland, the latter was limited in the development of external relations: it could not join organizations whose members posed a threat to the security of the USSR. Therefore, Finland did not join either the Warsaw Pact or NATO. In 1955 Finland was admitted to the UN, and in 1956 it became a member of the Nordic Council, an intergovernmental body of the Scandinavian countries. Since 1961, Finland has been an associate member of the European Free Trade Association, and since 1986 it has been a full member of this organization. The main direction of foreign policy after the Second World War was for Finland to maintain good relations with the USSR, which brought the country large economic income, primarily thanks to the capacious Soviet market. After the collapse of the USSR, Finland applied for admission to the EEC in 1992 and became a member of the EU in 1995. In January 1992, the Treaty on the Fundamentals of Relations between Russia and Finland was signed, which meant the termination of the 1948 treaty. The new treaty, concluded for 10 years, guarantees the inviolability of the borders of both countries.

ECONOMY

The country has limited mineral reserves, and its significant hydropower resources are not used efficiently. The country's main wealth is forests, and its economy has traditionally been linked to forest resources. Industries based on wood processing have long prevailed, and agriculture, which was the main occupation of the population before the Second World War, has always been combined with forestry. In the post-war period, the country's economy became much more diverse. According to the peace treaty of 1947, Finland ceded significant territory to the USSR and took on the heavy burden of paying reparations. These circumstances served as an impetus for the growth and diversification of industrial production. As a result, industry overtook agriculture in its development and took a leading place in the Finnish economy. New industries emerged in the country, in particular metallurgy, mechanical engineering and shipbuilding, which turned out to be more competitive than the timber processing industries.

Gross domestic product (GDP) and employment.

In 2002, Finland's GDP (the value of all market goods and services) amounted to 133.8 billion marks, or per capita $25,800 versus $28,283. The share of agriculture in GDP reached 4% in 2002 (in 1990 - 3.4%). Overall, in 2003 the primary sector (agriculture and mining) accounted for 4.3% of GDP, the secondary sector (manufacturing and construction) 32.7% and the tertiary sector (services) 62.9%. Finnish citizens pay the highest taxes in the world, which total 48.2% of GDP. During the period 1980–1989, GDP grew at an average rate of 3.1% per year (adjusted for inflation). Then the decline began: in 1991, GDP decreased by 6%, in 1992 - by 4%, in 1993 - by 3%. From 1994 to 1997, real GDP growth was respectively 4.5%, 5.1%, 3.6% and 6.0%, and in 2003 – 1.9%.

After World War II there were major changes in the structure of employment. In 1997, only 7.6% of the working population was employed in agriculture and forestry (versus 44% in 1948), 27.8% in industry and construction (30% in 1948) and 64.2% in management and services. (26% in 1948). Unemployment, which hovered around 2% in the early 1970s, increased towards the end of that decade and again in the early 1990s, reaching 16.4% in 1994. It fell to 9% in 2003.

Economical geography.

A third of Finland's area is located beyond the Arctic Circle. This is a sparsely populated area with pine and birch woodlands and rapids rivers with large reserves of hydroelectric power. In contrast, in the southwest lie fertile plains with mechanized farms and numerous cities and towns. This densely populated area has access to the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland. On the land side, it is limited by a line running from the city of Pori on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia to the city of Kotka, Finland's largest export port at the mouth of the Kymijoki River. The main industrial center is the capital city of Helsinki. Industrial planning is the most striking feature of its development in the 20th century. Half of the country's manufacturing enterprises are concentrated in the Helsinki region. Engineering factories produce machine tools, agricultural machinery, dynamos, electric motors and ships. Helsinki is also home to food and chemical industries, printing plants and world-famous factories producing glass and porcelain tableware. Turku, the main port in southwestern Finland, ranks third among mechanical engineering centers and first among shipbuilding centers in the country. Tampere, the largest industrial center in the interior of Finland, is known as one of the main centers of the textile industry in the Scandinavian countries. There are also various machine-building enterprises there. However, in recent years there has been a reduction in production in the shipbuilding and textile industries.

Beyond southwestern Finland, with its towns and prosperous farms, lies a vast transition zone that includes the Lake District. Forest-related industries predominate here. In some settlements there are pulp and paper mills. Along the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia there is an economically underdeveloped area with a compact Swedish-speaking population. In the cities of Vaasa and Oulu, ancient centers of timber trade, there are sawmills and wood processing plants producing pulp, paper and other goods. Today Finland continues to be one of the world's leading producers of high-quality paper.

Organization of production.

In Finland, most companies and corporations are owned by individuals. Hydroelectric power plants and railways are state property, and the state largely regulates business activities. The transfer of land from one owner to another is also strictly controlled by the state. Approximately 1/3 of retail trade is concentrated in the hands of cooperatives, but large private marketing companies play a leading role in trade. Finnish farmers use the services of consumer, production and marketing cooperatives. In addition, cooperative banks provide loans for the purchase of land and modernization of farms to increase output. Through the Bank of Finland, the government sets interest rates and discount rates and thus effectively controls lending operations. Finland pursues a policy of actively attracting foreign investment.

Agriculture.

Before World War II, agriculture was the main occupation of the population. After the war, peasants who arrived from areas ceded to the USSR received land plots, and many small farms were organized in this way. Currently, small peasant farms predominate in the country. Limited opportunities for expansion of agricultural production and increased mechanization of farms contributed to a significant reduction in the number of people employed in this industry, while the income of the remainder increased significantly. Finland had to lift traditional restrictions on imports of agricultural products, as this was a prerequisite for joining the EU. Production of dairy products, meat and eggs exceeds domestic demand, and these commodities dominate agricultural exports. Some specific products are also exported, such as smoked venison. Overall, agricultural products accounted for only 1.3% of export revenues in 1997.

Livestock farming, especially dairy cattle, pigs and broilers, is an important specialized branch of Finnish agriculture. In 1997, there were approx. 1140 thousand dairy cows – slightly more than in previous years. On the contrary, the number of reindeer decreased and in 1997 amounted to 203 thousand heads. Most of the arable area is sown with forage grasses, mainly a grass mixture of ryegrass, timothy and clover. Potatoes and fodder beets are also grown.

The cultivation of commercial food crops in Finland is limited due to the short growing season and the constant danger of frost, even during the growing season. The country is located beyond the northern borders of the cultivation of major grain crops and is located away from the Atlantic coast with its mild climate. Wheat can be grown only in the extreme southwest, rye and potatoes - up to 66° N, barley - up to 68° N, oats - up to 65° N. With the exception of years with unfavorable growing conditions, Finland is 85% self-sufficient in grain (mainly oats, barley and wheat). The development of grain farming was facilitated by the improvement of land reclamation methods, the widespread use of fertilizers and the breeding of cold-resistant varieties. Wheat and other grain crops, along with sugar beets, are grown on the fertile clay plains of the southwest, apples, cucumbers and onions - on the Åland Islands, tomatoes - in greenhouses in the south of the former. Governorate of Vaasa (Österbotten).

In Finland, agriculture and forestry are inextricably linked. Most peasants, along with arable land, own significant forest areas. Over 60% of forested land belongs to farmers. In the early 1990s, on average approx. Farmers received 1/6 of their income from timber harvesting (their share is lower in the more fertile southern regions and higher in the northern and central). Thanks to this source, the income of many Finnish peasants is very high, which allows them to purchase equipment and compensate for crop losses (in many areas of central and northern Finland, crop failures occur approximately once every four years).

Forestry.

Finland's forests constitute its greatest natural wealth. The wood is used to produce plywood, pulp, paper and other materials. In 1997, the value of exports of forest products (timber, pulp and paper) accounted for 30.7% of all export earnings, which was much lower than in 1968 (61%). However, Finland was still the world's second largest exporter of paper and cardboard after Canada.

Forests, consisting mainly of pine, spruce and birch, are the country's main resource. In 1987–1991, on average, 44 million cubic meters of forest were cut down per year, and in 1997 - 53 million cubic meters. m. Of the other Scandinavian countries, only Sweden has a similar indicator. Deforestation was a cause for concern back in the early 1960s because logging exceeded natural growth. In 1995, a plan for forest protection and forestry development was developed. In order to use forest resources in the north and east of the country, logging roads were laid and the reclamation network was expanded. In the more productive southern and central regions, where 60% of all timber reserves are concentrated, fertilization and reforestation were widely used. As a result, the annual increase in timber reserves in the 1970s was 1.5%, and in the 1980s - 4%. In 1998, natural growth exceeded the volume of felling by 20 million cubic meters.

Fishing,

important for domestic consumption, supplies only a small share of products for export. The number of people employed exclusively in this industry decreased from 2.4 thousand in 1967 to 1.2 thousand in 1990, and the total value of the catch increased from 10.3 million dollars in 1967 to 42.1 million in 1990 In 1995, fish catch in Finland reached 184.3 thousand tons.

Mining industry.

Mineral reserves in Finland are small, and their mining began relatively recently. In 1993, it accounted for less than 1% of the total value of industrial output. Among minerals, zinc is the most important, but Finland's share in world production is small. The next place is occupied by copper, which is mined at the Outokumpu and Pyhäsalmi mines, followed by iron ore and vanadium. Metal ores amount to approx. 40% of the value of mining products. Valuable deposits of nickel ores were transferred to the USSR in 1945, but this loss was partly compensated for by subsequently discovered deposits of copper, nickel, lead and zinc. Several new iron ore deposits have been explored on the seabed near the island of Yussarø and the Åland Islands. Tornio mines chromium and nickel, which are used to produce alloy steel.

Energy.

Finland has a large hydroelectric potential, but it is only half used, since the development of these resources is complicated due to small differences in altitude. In 1995, total electricity generation was 65 billion kWh (versus 118 billion in Norway, with its smaller population). More than half of Finland's hydropower capacity is concentrated in hydroelectric power plants built on the Kemijoki rivers in the far north, Oulujoki with its tributaries in the center and Vironkoski in the southeast. Almost all of Finland's heavy industry is based on the consumption of large amounts of electricity. The country's railways are largely electrified. Finland ranks second in the world in peat production; in 1997 it accounted for 7% of the country's energy balance. Approximately 51% of energy comes from imported oil, coal and natural gas, which until 1991 came mainly from the USSR. Nuclear energy began to develop in the 1970s, when two nuclear power plants were built near Helsinki. The reactors and fuel for them were supplied by the USSR. In the 1980s, two more nuclear power plants were built, purchased from Sweden. In 1997, nuclear energy accounted for 17% of the country's energy balance.

Manufacturing industry

Finland is still characterized by numerous small enterprises and cottage industries, but after the Second World War the number of large enterprises has increased significantly. The share of industry and construction in 1997 accounted for approx. 35.4% of total production and 27% of employment.

The manufacturing industry is dominated by forestry industries producing pulp, paper and lumber. In 1996, their share accounted for 18% of the country's industrial output. Approximately 2/3 of the products of these industries are exported. Softwood processing is concentrated on the coast of the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia and in the Gulf of Finland region, where raw materials come from the Lake District. About 30% of paper products are newsprint; In addition, cardboard, wrapping paper and high-quality paper for banknotes, shares and other valuable documents are produced. Lumber was an important export commodity as early as the mid-19th century. At the beginning of the 1970s, there were half as many sawmills operating in Finland as at the beginning of the 20th century, but the output of this industry remained at the 1913 level (7.5 million cubic meters per year). In the mid-1970s, lumber production decreased significantly, and then began to grow again and in 1989 reached 7.7 million cubic meters. m. The main center of sawmilling is the city of Kemi on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia. The woodworking industry in Finland originated at the very beginning of the 20th century. More than 20 plywood factories are concentrated in the east of the Lake District, in an area of ​​large tracts of birch forests.

After World War II, metallurgy and mechanical engineering began to develop intensively in Finland. These industries arose in connection with the need to pay reparations to the USSR in the form of ships, machine tools, electric cables and other goods. In 1996, metallurgy and mechanical engineering accounted for 42% of all industrial employment, and these industries accounted for over 1/4 of all industrial output. In 1997, these industries provided 46% of the country's export earnings (in 1950 - only 5%). A large modern metallurgical plant is located in Raahe, and smaller plants exist in many cities in southwestern Finland. The steel produced in Rautaruukki meets the special requirements of the Arctic regions.

They also produce machines and equipment for pulp and paper mills, agricultural machinery, tankers and icebreakers, cables, transformers, generators and electric motors.

In the 1980s and 1990s, Finland became a major manufacturer of cell phones (Nokia). The leading Finnish producer in the fuel industry is the oil company Neste, which produces gasoline and diesel fuel that is resistant to extreme cold.

The chemical industry also began to develop after World War II. In 1997, it accounted for 10% of the value of industrial output and 10% of export earnings. This industry produces synthetic fibers and plastics from wood waste, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and cosmetics. Finland has also become famous for its high-quality handicrafts - decorative fabrics, furniture and glassware.

The large dairy enterprise Valio Oy is known far beyond the country as a producer of high-quality cheeses (Marta Viola), baby food, breast milk substitutes and artificial nutrition.

Transport and communications.

The Finnish State Railways are concentrated in the southern part of the country. Their total length is 5900 km, and only 1600 km are electrified. Although the highway system was expanded and the private car fleet grew greatly in the 1960s and 1970s, traffic volumes in Finland are still low compared to other Scandinavian countries. In summer, bus service is maintained up to the extreme northern regions. The length of highways reaches 80 thousand km. The 6,100 km network of navigable waterways, including canals between numerous lakes, is extremely important for passenger and freight transport. In winter, navigation through the canals is carried out with the help of icebreakers.

In 1998, Finland had more mobile phones per capita (50.1 per 100 inhabitants) than any other country in the world. Nokia Corporation, founded in Finland and headquartered there, is the world's largest manufacturer of mobile phones. Finland is also a leader in the development of the Internet system; in 1998, 88 people were connected to it for every 1000 inhabitants, and there were 654 servers for every 100 thousand inhabitants. Universities have a particularly high level of use of this communication system.

International trade.

The Finnish economy, like its neighboring Scandinavian countries, is heavily dependent on foreign trade. In 1997, imports and exports together accounted for 65% of GDP, the value of imports was 30.9 billion dollars, exports were 40.9 billion dollars. Metallurgy and mechanical engineering products are the largest source of export earnings (43.3%), followed by wood processing and chemical industries. Finland imports mainly industrial raw materials, fuels, transport equipment and chemical products.

In the decades following World War II, Finland's foreign trade balance generally ran a small deficit. The huge increase in oil prices on the world market in 1973–1974 and in 1979 forced to limit imports and restore the balance of foreign trade. However, at the same time, Finland's overall balance of payments, including services and financial intermediation, fell sharply into deficit as the high standard of living was maintained by foreign loans. In 1972, the Finnish government and banks had an external debt of $700 million, but in 1997 this fell to $32.4 million (mainly due to the sharp rise in prices in the late 1980s). From 1980 to 1993, there was a constant deficit in the foreign trade balance, and it reached its highest level - $5.1 billion - in 1991. However, over the next few years, the value of Finland's exports increased significantly, and in 1997 the foreign trade balance became positive (+ 6, 6 billion dollars).

The majority of Finland's foreign trade (60% of imports and 60% of exports in 1997) is with Western European countries, especially Germany, Sweden and the UK, where pulp and paper products are mainly exported. Trade with the former USSR was conducted primarily on a barter basis, formalized in five-year agreements; in the early 1980s, Finland sent up to 25% of its exports there, especially metallurgy and engineering products, as well as ready-made clothing in exchange for oil and natural gas. When in 1991 Finland decided to transfer foreign trade transactions to convertible currency, exports to Russia fell to 5%. This had a particularly strong impact on the state of the shipbuilding and textile industries, which had long worked for the stable Soviet market.

Monetary system and banks.

The monetary unit until 2002 was the Finnish mark, issued by the Central Bank of Finland. Government revenues in 1997 amounted to $36.6 billion, of which 29% came from income and real estate taxes, 53% from sales and other indirect taxes, and 9% from social security contributions. Expenditures amounted to $36.6 billion, of which 30% was for social security and housing construction, 23% for servicing external debt, 14% for education, 9% for health care and 5% for defense. In 1997, public debt reached $80.4 billion, of which 2/3 was owed to foreign creditors. Finland's foreign exchange reserves in the same year were estimated at $8.9 billion.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

In general, Finnish society is quite homogeneous. The presence of two main ethnic groups - Finnish and Swedish - in modern conditions does not create any serious problems. The country's social unity has stood the test of time. The influx of immigrants from Karelia after World War II created social and economic difficulties, but they were quickly overcome.

Organization of society.

Despite the equalizing effect of the income tax, in 1997 persons receiving more than 250 thousand marks per year accounted for 2.9% of all taxpayers, and they accounted for 12.5% ​​of all income. This group paid 18.1% of all taxes. In contrast, in the same year, persons earning less than 60 thousand marks per year accounted for 42% of all taxpayers and accounted for 16.1% of all income. This group paid 6.6% of all taxes. Despite this obvious inequality, in 1997 the Gini index (a statistical measure of income inequality) in Finland was 25.6%, i.e. was one of the lowest in the world.

Organizations of industrialists and traders.

The economic groups of the Finnish population are highly cohesive. In agriculture there is the Central Union of Agricultural Producers, in forestry there is the Central Union of the Finnish Forest Industry, and in industry there is the Central Union of Industrialists and Employers (CSPR), which expanded significantly in 1993 due to the merger of a number of business associations. The country has a Federation of Foreign Trade Groups and a Central Organization of Shipowners. To encourage the production of artistic textiles, ceramics and furniture for which the country is famous, an organization has been established to promote the development of Finnish handicrafts. Most other trade groups also have their own associations.

Consumer cooperation plays a significant role in the economic life of Finland. There are two main groups of cooperatives - one for farmers (Central Association of Cooperatives), the other for workers (Central Union of Consumer Cooperatives). Together, in the mid-1990s, they united 1.4 million members and controlled almost 1/3 of retail trade.

Trade union movement

Finland is widespread. Currently, there are three large workers' associations: The Central Organization of Trade Unions of Finland (COPF), founded in 1907 and numbering almost 1.1 million members in 1997. The organization of trade unions of workers with higher education, operating since 1950 and numbering 230 thousand people, the Central Union of Technical Workers, formed in 1946 and uniting 130 thousand people. The central organization of trade unions of officials and employees, founded in 1922 and numbering approx. 400 thousand members, functioned until its dissolution in 1992. In its place, more than 12 independent trade unions arose.

TsOFP and independent trade unions enter into collective agreements with the TsSPR, which unites approximately 6.3 thousand employers. Most of these agreements apply to the entire industry and not to an individual enterprise. Government bodies - the economic council and the wage council - monitor compliance with the contracts.

Religion in the life of society.

The State Lutheran Church does not interfere in the activities of other religious movements. Although among believers there is sometimes dissent and indifference towards the state church, in the western, central and northern regions it enjoys very great influence. The Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church is engaged in active missionary activities. Finnish missionaries work in Asian and African countries. In Finland itself, the Young People's Christian Association, the Women's Christian Youth Association are active, and among adults there are various organizations of the Finnish Free Church. Religious activities themselves are the responsibility of the bishops, and financially the church is accountable to the state. During the interwar period, the Lutheran Church supported conservative and right-wing circles (in particular, the Lapua movement) in the fight against Social Democrats and Communists, although the clergy themselves were not members of secular organizations.

The status of women.

Universal suffrage was introduced in 1906. Finland was the first European country to give women the right to vote. It is not uncommon for women to occupy ministerial positions and the highest professional positions everywhere except the church. In 1995, among the 200 deputies of parliament, there were 67 women (and in 1991 - 77).

In 1996 in Finland, 61.4% of women aged 25 to 54 were working, a record high even for industrialized countries, although in 1986 the figure was even higher - 65%. Over 80% of women are employed in the service sector, and women make up almost half of the staff of government organizations and agencies.

Social Security.

A broad legislative framework underlies the social security system and the protection of citizens. There is a system of compulsory old age and disability insurance, financed mainly by employers. To smooth out the effects of inflation, the state subsidizes old-age pensions. State social security programs pay unemployment benefits, maternity benefits, care for infants and large families, and also finance kindergartens and after-school groups in schools. Health insurance covers most of the costs of outpatient and inpatient treatment in public clinics. According to the National Health Law of 1972, free medical centers were established in all municipalities. In 1998, Finland ranked fifth in the world in terms of quality of life (when determining this indicator, the state of health care, standard of living, life expectancy, income and the implementation of women's rights were taken into account).

CULTURE

Finnish culture up to the 20th century. experienced significant Swedish influence. The long stay within Russia had little effect on the development of Finnish culture. After gaining independence in 1917, the Finns emphasized the national identity of their cultural heritage, and accordingly the role of Swedish culture began to decline (with the exception of areas with a predominant Swedish-speaking population).

Education.

In 1997, Finland spent 7.2% of GDP on education and ranked first among developed countries in terms of this indicator. Education in the country is free at all levels up to university and compulsory for all children aged 7 to 16 years. Illiteracy has been almost completely eliminated. In 1997 approx. 400 thousand children studied in primary schools and 470 thousand in secondary schools, incl. 125 thousand in vocational schools. In 1997, there were 142.8 thousand students at the country's universities, incl. in the following cities: Helsinki - 37 thousand, Tampere - 15 thousand, Turku - 15 thousand (university teaching in Finnish) and 6 thousand (university teaching in Swedish - Abo Academy), Oulu - 14 thousand. , Jyväskylä – 12 thousand. Joensuu - 9 thousand, Kuopio - 4 thousand and Rovaniemi (University of Lapland) - 2 thousand. Another 62.3 thousand students studied in technical, veterinary, agricultural, trade and teacher training colleges. The network of educational institutions of this type is developing rapidly. In addition, adult education programs have been established, covering more than 25% of the working population.

Literature and art.

At the origins of Finnish literature, music and folklore lies an outstanding national epic Kalevala, collected by Elias Lönrot in 1849. Its influence can be seen in the works of prominent Finnish writers Alexis Kivi and F.E. Sillanpää, as well as in the music of Jean Sibelius. In the 19th century the prominent poet and author of the national anthem of Finland, Johan Runeberg, and the master of the historical novel, Tsakarias Topelius, wrote in Swedish. At the end of the 19th century. A galaxy of realist writers appeared: Minna Kant, Juhani Aho, Arvid Järnefelt, Teuvo Pakkala, Ilmari Kianto. In the 20th century they were joined by Maiju Lassila, Johannes Linnankoski, Joel Lehtonen. At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. poets J.H. Erkko, Eino Leino and Edith Södergran wrote.

After the First World War, a number of new writers appeared on the literary arena: Nobel Prize winner France Emil Sillanpää, author of novels about rural life in western Finland, Toivo Pekkanen, who described the life of workers in the city of Kotka, Aino Kallas, whose works were dedicated to Estonia, Unto Seppänen, a writer of everyday life of a Karelian village, and Pentti Haanpää, a gifted writer, a master of artistic expression. Väine Linn's novels about the Second World War became very popular ( Unknown Soldier) and about landless peasants ( Here, under the Northern Star). In post-war literature, the social novel experienced a new flourishing (Aili Nordgren, Martti Larney, K. Chilman, etc.). In the genre of historical novel, Mika Valtari, the author of the acclaimed Egyptian.

Among Finnish playwrights, the most famous are Maria Jotuni, Hella Vuolioki and Ilmari Turja, and among poets are Eino Leino, V.A. Koskenniemi, Katri Vala and Paavo Haavikko.

The oldest architectural ensemble adjacent to the medieval cathedral has been preserved in the city of Turku. The old center of Helsinki was built mainly according to the designs of Carl Engel in the first half of the 19th century. This wonderful monument of the Empire architectural style has great similarities with the ensembles of St. Petersburg. At the beginning of the 20th century. Finnish architecture clearly showed national romanticism, strengthening the connection between the building and its natural environment. The buildings themselves were distinguished by their picturesque and decorative interpretation of architectural forms, resurrecting images of Finnish folklore; Local natural stone was widely used in construction. The most famous works are the buildings of the National Museum of Finland, the National Theatre, the Scandinavian Bank and the railway station in Helsinki. Leading figures in this movement were Eliel Saarinen, Lars Sonck, Armas Lindgren and Hermann Gesellius. National romanticism has firmly entered the history of world architecture.

Functionalism, introduced in Finland by Alvar Aalto and Eric Bruggman in the interwar period, promoted the free organization of volumes and spaces, asymmetry of compositions, and ease of planning. The telephone exchange building and the Tampere Cathedral, created by Lars Sonck, are considered masterpieces of this movement. Practical and comfortable residential buildings, schools, hospitals, shops, and industrial enterprises were built. The aesthetic value of these buildings lies in their very design, made without excessive ornamentation.

In the post-war period, the main attention was paid to the problems of mass housing and public construction. Simplicity and rigor of architectural forms, along with the widespread use of modern building structures (development of the satellite cities of Helsinki Tapiola and Otaniemi) are characteristic of the work of many outstanding masters (Alvar Aalto, Eric Bruggman, Viljo Revell, Heikki Siren, A. Ervi). Under the influence of the ideas of structuralism, residential complexes appeared with compact development of asymmetrical, geometrically clear groups of houses (Kortepohja district in Jyväskylä, Hakunila district in Helsinki, etc.). Recognized contemporary architects are Reima Pietilä, Timo Penttila and Juha Leiviskää, winner of the Carlsberg Prize 1995. Timo Sarpaneva is the winner of many international design competitions.

Fine art of Finland in the 19th century. maintained close contacts with leading European schools in Paris, Dusseldorf, and St. Petersburg. In 1846 the Finnish Art Society was founded. The foundations of national landscape painting were laid by V. Holmberg, J. Munsterhjelm, B. Lindholm and V. Vesterholm. The moralizing, somewhat sentimental paintings of A. von Becker and K. Janson are in the tradition of late modernism. The von Wright brothers created romantic rural landscapes.

Late 19th century considered the “golden age” of Finnish painting. At this time, the artistic movement “Young Finland” emerged, developing the ideas of independence and service to the people. Democratic tendencies in Finnish painting, close to the traditions of the Peredvizhniki in Russia, were reflected in the works of Albert Edelfelt (the first Finnish artist to become famous outside his country), Eero Järnefelt and Pekka Halonen. The largest representative of national romanticism in painting was Akseli Gallen-Kallela, who repeatedly turned to the subjects of Finnish epic and folklore. The original talent of Juho Rissanen was attracted by scenes of folk life. An outstanding portrait painter was A. Faven. Female painters Maria Wiik and Helena Schjerfbeck were distinguished by their high level of skill.

Painting of the early 20th century. was strongly influenced by French impressionism. Many Finnish artists, such as Gösta Diehl and Erkki Kulovesi, studied in Paris. This direction was promoted by the creative association “Septem”, founded by Magnus Enkell. Then the competing “November Group” of expressionists was formed under the leadership of Tyko Sallinen. Then the passion of Finnish artists for modernism, abstractionism and constructivism appeared.

The development of secular sculpture in Finland began only in the mid-19th century. The first masters, of whom Johannes Takanen was the most talented, adhered to the traditions of classicism. Later, the realistic movement strengthened, whose representatives were Robert Stiegel, Emil Wikström, Alpo Sailo, Yrjö Liipola and Gunnar Finne.

After the First World War, Finnish sculpture gained worldwide fame thanks to the outstanding master Väinö Aaltonen. For the bronze statue of runner Paavo Nurmi, Olympic champion, Aaltonen received the Grand Prix at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937. He created a whole gallery of sculptural images of Finnish cultural and artistic figures. Sculptors such as Aimo Tukiainen, Kalervo Kallio and Erkki Kannosto are widely known in the country and abroad. According to the design of female sculptor Eila Hiltunen, a monumental monument to Jean Sibelius was erected on a rock in a picturesque corner of Helsinki, imitating a majestic organ made of steel pipes of different sizes, connected into a powerful rhythmic composition. On a nearby rock there is a sculptural portrait of the great composer, also made of steel.

Finnish music is identified mainly with the work of Jean Sibelius. Other Finnish composers successfully searched for new forms, and here such masters as Selim Palmgren, Yrjö Kilpinen (composer-songwriter), Armas Järnefelt (writer of romances, choral and symphonic music) and Uuno Klami became especially famous. Oscar Mericanto became famous as the author of the opera Maiden of the North, and Arre Mericanto created atonal music. Opera by Aulis Sallinen Rider was a great success and influenced the formation of modern opera art. Esa-Pekka Salonen is one of the country's most famous conductors. There are symphony orchestras in Helsinki, Turku, Tampere and Lahti, and there are choirs and singing groups even in small villages. Among the numerous theaters, the leading positions are occupied by the Finnish Ballet, the Finnish National Theatre, the Finnish National Opera and the Swedish Theater. The city of Savonlinna hosts opera festivals every July. Finland ranks first in the world in terms of subsidies for the maintenance of theaters and museums (more than $100 per year per resident of the country).

The science.

Scientific work is carried out at universities, and the coordination of research and the distribution of funds is carried out by the Academy of Finland, founded in 1947. Among the main tasks facing scientists was obtaining clear information about the nature and natural resources of the country. The works of Finnish geologists made it possible to clarify the fundamental problems of the structure of the Baltic shield and evaluate its mineral resources. In Finland, for the first time in the world, a complete forest taxation was carried out under the leadership of Yrjö Ilvessalo in 1921–1924. A.K. Kayander conducted geobotanical expeditions in the north of the European part of Russia, in Siberia and Central Europe. He developed the doctrine of forest types, and the classification he proposed was successfully applied in many other countries. On his initiative, the first experimental forestry stations were created in Finland. In 1922, 1924 and 1937–1939, Kajander headed the government of Finland.

An outstanding scientist and Nobel Prize winner in chemistry, Artturi Virtanen, conducted research on the production of proteins and biochemical nitrogen fixation, and also found a way to preserve green feed. The Finnish school of mathematics (Lars Ahlfors, Ernst Lindelöf and Rolf Nevanlinna) contributed to the development of the theory of analytic functions. There are great achievements in the fields of mechanics, geodesy, and astronomy. Significant research has been carried out on Finno-Ugric philology, archeology, and ethnography. The Finnish Literary Society (founded in 1831) and the Finno-Ugric Society (founded in 1883) played a major role in carrying out this work. The first of them published dozens of volumes of folklore materials in the series Ancient poetry of the Finnish people.

Largest scientific center of Finland - University of Helsinki. Its library contains all the publications of scientists in this country. In 1997, Finland ranked seventh in the world in the number of scientific workers - 3675 per 1 million inhabitants.

The people of Finland love to read. In 1997, on average, for every resident of this country there were 19.7 books issued by public libraries. The developed library system is able to satisfy the needs of residents of the most remote areas of the country.

Mass media.

In 1997, more than 200 newspapers were published in Finland, including 56 daily newspapers (8 in Swedish). Largest newspapers – Helsingit Sanomat (independent), Aamulehti (NCP organ) in Tampere and Turun Sanomat (to Turku). The official organ of the SDPF is “Demari” , and LSF – “Kansan Uutiset” . The country produces the world's largest number of books per capita; in 1997 it was published approx. 11 thousand items.

Until 1984, there was a state monopoly on radio and television broadcasting. Currently, there are four state television channels and seven state radio stations. Broadcasting is conducted in two languages ​​– Finnish (75%) and Swedish (25%). Private television companies buy airtime from the government.

Sport.

At the international level, Finnish athletes have a long history of excellence in cross-country skiing and ski jumping. Many world records were also set in athletics, victories were won in wrestling and ice hockey. Mass sports are widely developed in the country, especially ice hockey, orienteering, football, skiing, rowing, motorcycling and gymnastics.

Customs and holidays.

It has firmly entered into the life of the Finns sauna – sauna heated with dry steam. There are approx. 1.5 million saunas (i.e. one for every three inhabitants). Regular visits to the sauna have become a tradition not only in rural areas, but also in cities.

In Finland, the longest day of the year is celebrated on June 24th. This massive folk festival called “Juhannus” (Midsummer's Day, or the day of remembrance of John the Baptist), has ancient roots. On this day, people go to their dachas and to their relatives in the village. It is customary to celebrate all night long, throwing away everyday worries, lighting large bonfires and practicing fortune-telling. Other secular holidays – May Day; June 4, Memorial Day of Marshal Mannerheim. December 6th is Independence Day in Finland. Religious holidays - Epiphany, Good Friday (Friday of Holy Week), Easter, Ascension, Trinity, Christmas Eve and Christmas.

STORY

Ancient period.

At the beginning of our era, Finnish tribes that came from the east settled in the southern regions of what is now Finland, where they mixed with the local population. The Sami tribes, descendants of earlier Finno-Ugric migrants, were pushed north.

The ancestors of modern Finns were pagans, led a nomadic lifestyle and were mainly engaged in hunting and fishing. The Suomi tribe lived in the southwest, the Khame tribe lived in the center, and the Karjala tribe lived in the east. Subsequently, the name “Suomi” was transferred to the entire country. The Finns came into contact with the Swedish tribes inhabiting the eastern regions of the Scandinavian Peninsula and carried out a series of raids on their lands.

Swedish domination.

In response to these raids, the Swedes launched the First Crusade (1157) against the pagan Finns. It culminated in the conquest of southwestern Finland and the spread of Christianity there. During the Second Crusade (1249–1250), the central regions of southern Finland were conquered, and during the Third Crusade (1293–1300), Swedish power extended to the eastern regions. Fortresses were built on the conquered lands. Thus, the Swedish state penetrated into the eastern part of the Baltic region, but these same lands were claimed by Russia, which was looking for access to Europe by sea.

In 1323, the Orekhovetsky (Noteburg) Treaty was concluded between Sweden and Novgorod, which outlined the border between Finland and Russian lands.

Finland received some benefits from the union with Sweden, being integrated into Sweden. Since 1362, representatives of Finland have taken part in the election of the kings of Sweden. The adoption of a new religion was accompanied by the spread of European customs, morals and culture. Mixed marriages between Finns and Swedes expanded Finnish representation in local government. The rise of the Vasa dynasty in Sweden led to the establishment of a more effective government in Finland. The formation of the Finnish literary language dates back to the same time, the father of which was the priest Mikael Agricola, who began to translate the Bible into Finnish. Since 1548, church services began to be held in Finnish.

In the 17th century Sweden has made some improvements to the administrative system in Finland. The Swedish Governor-General Per Brahe introduced a court of appeal and founded a university in Turku, and also granted autonomy to cities. Representatives of Finland were admitted to the Swedish Riksdag. Although these reforms primarily affected the interests of the Swedish nobility living in Finland, local peasants also benefited from them to some extent.

The development of crafts and commodity-money relations began relatively early in the country. Along with agriculture, peasants were engaged in blacksmithing, weaving, tar smoking, and sawing timber. Mining began, and landowners founded small metallurgical plants that burned charcoal. Part of the products of landowner and state enterprises and products of peasant and guild crafts (resin, paper) was exported. In exchange, bread, salt and some other goods were imported.

Complicating Finland's position was its geographical location as a buffer between Russia and Sweden, which made it throughout the 15th and early 19th centuries. theater of military operations in the Russian-Swedish wars in the struggle for dominance in the Baltic. During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), Finland was occupied by Russian troops. The war was accompanied by famine and epidemics, which killed almost half of the country's population. In 1721, only 250 thousand people remained in Finland. After Russia's victory in the Northern War under Peter I, the Treaty of Nystadt was concluded (1721), according to which Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia and the Moozund Islands were ceded to Russia. Russia returned most of Finland to Sweden and paid 2 million efimki in compensation for the lands acquired by Russia.

In an effort to seize the lands conquered by Peter I from Russia, Sweden declared war on it in 1741, but a year later all of Finland was again in the hands of the Russians. According to the Abo Peace Treaty of 1743, the territory up to the river went to Russia. Kymijoki with the fortified cities of Vilmanstrand (Lappenranta) and Friedrichsgam (Hamina).

Autonomous Grand Duchy within Russia.

From the 70s to the 18th century. Separatist ideas began to emerge among the Finnish elite. Some prominent Finns dreamed of independence for the country (Georg Magnus Sprengtporten). These sentiments manifested themselves during the Russo-Swedish War of 1788–1790, when the Swedish king Gustav III tried to regain the lost provinces.

The fate of Finland was also influenced by Sweden's hostile attitude towards Napoleon. At a meeting in Tilsit (1807), Alexander I and Napoleon agreed that if Sweden did not join the Continental blockade, Russia would declare war on it. When the Swedish king Gustav IV Adolf rejected this demand, Russian troops invaded southern Finland in 1808 and began to advance west and then north. At first they were successful. The southern part of the country, where the bulk of the population lived, was occupied by Russian troops. The Russian capture of the Sveaborg fortress, which was called the “Swedish Gibraltar in the North,” dealt a serious blow to Sweden. Alexander I announced the annexation of Finland to Russia, the population took an oath of allegiance. In the summer of 1808, the Swedes gathered their strength and stopped the enemy’s offensive for some time, but they failed to turn the tide of the war. In the autumn of 1808 they were driven out from the entire territory of Finland. Russian troops carried out raids on the Åland Islands and even on the territory of Sweden itself. In March 1809, King Gustav IV Adolf was overthrown. At the same time, representatives of the Finnish estates gathered in the city of Borgo (Porvoo), confirming the accession of Finland to Russia. The Diet was opened by Alexander I, who announced the granting of Finland the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy, preserving the previous Swedish laws. Swedish remained the official language. The war ended with the defeat of Sweden and the signing of the Friedrichsham Peace Treaty, according to which Finland ceded to Russia as a Grand Duchy and the Åland Islands. In 1809, the Grand Duchy of Finland was formed with its own Diet and a special commission on Finnish affairs was created (later renamed the Committee on Finnish Affairs). In 1812, Helsingfors (Helsinki) was declared the capital of the principality.

Finland enjoyed significant benefits and privileges. It received its own postal service and justice system, and, from the 1860s, its own Finnish monetary system. Finns were exempted from compulsory service in the Russian army. The well-being of the population grew, and its number increased from 1 million people in 1815 to 1.75 million in 1870.

The cultural life of Finland has revived. This was facilitated by the transfer of the university from Turku to the capital city of Helsinki. Johan Ludwig Runeberg, author Legends of Ensign Stol, and Elias Lenroth, creator of the epic Kalevala, influenced the growth of self-awareness of the Finnish people and laid the foundation for the study of their language and literature. Johan Vilhelm Snellman led the movement to develop school education and in 1863 achieved the approval of the equality of the Finnish language with Swedish.

Rights of the Grand Duchy of Finland as an autonomy until the end of the 19th century. were not violated by the tsarist government. In the period from 1809 to 1863, the Finnish Diet did not meet, and the country was governed by the Senate under the Governor-General. The first meeting of the Sejm to develop a constitution was convened in 1863 on the initiative of Alexander II. Since 1869, the Sejm began to convene regularly, its composition was renewed every five years, and since 1882 - every three years. A multi-party system began to take shape. Finland has undergone deep structural reforms, primarily in the economy. The process of modernization of the country has accelerated.

During the reign of Nicholas II, under the influence of Russian military circles, a new policy began to be developed, aimed at the accelerated integration of Finland into the empire and the gradual curtailment of autonomy. First, an attempt was made to force the Finns to do military service in the Russian army. When the Senate, which had previously made concessions, rejected this demand, General Bobrikov introduced military courts. In response to this, in 1904 the Finns shot Bobrikov, and unrest began in the country. The Russian Revolution of 1905 coincided with the rise of the Finnish national liberation movement, and all of Finland joined the general strike in Russia. Political parties, especially the Social Democrats, took part in this movement and put forward their reform program. Nicholas II was forced to cancel decrees that limited Finnish autonomy. In 1906, a new democratic electoral law was adopted, giving women the right to vote (for the first time in Europe). After the suppression of the revolution in 1907, the tsar once again tried to consolidate the previous policy by introducing military rule, but it was swept away by the revolution of 1917.

At the beginning of the 20th century. In Finland, the woodworking and pulp and paper industries predominantly developed, which were oriented towards the Western European market. The leading branch of agriculture was livestock farming, the products of which were also mainly exported to Western Europe. Finland's trade with Russia was declining. During the First World War, due to the blockade and the almost complete cessation of external maritime relations, both the main export industries and the domestic market industries that relied on imported raw materials were curtailed.

Declaration of Independence.

Declaration of Independence. After the February Revolution in Russia in March 1917, the privileges of Finland, lost after the revolution of 1905, were restored. A new governor-general was appointed and a Sejm was convened. However, the law on the restoration of the autonomous rights of Finland, adopted by the Sejm on July 18, 1917, was rejected by the Provisional Government, the Sejm was dissolved, and its building was occupied by Russian troops. The “red” and “white” guards began to form. After the October Revolution and the overthrow of the Provisional Government on December 6, 1917, Finland declared its independence, which was recognized on December 18/31 by Lenin's Bolshevik government.

Radical social democrats, relying on the Red Guard units, carried out a coup d'etat in January 1918 and proclaimed Finland a socialist workers' republic. The Finnish government fled to the north, where Russian army general Baron Carl Gustav Mannerheim led the emerging White army. A civil war broke out between the whites and the reds, who were helped by the Russian troops still remaining in the country. Thousands of people became victims of the Red and White Terror. Kaiser Germany sent a division to Finland to help the Whites establish a pro-German regime. The Reds were unable to resist the well-armed Kaiser's troops, who soon captured Tampere and Helsinki. The last Red stronghold, Vyborg, fell in April 1918. A Sejm was convened to form a government, and Per Evind Svinhufvud was appointed acting head of state.

The creation of the republic and the interwar period.

The ruin of the country's economy and the blockade by the Entente made life in the country difficult. After some time, the parties were reborn under different names, and 80 moderate Social Democrats, also Old Finns and representatives of the progressive and agrarian parties, took part in the work of the Sejm, convened in April 1919. A new democratic constitution for the country was adopted. Kaarlo Juho Stolberg was elected president.

The Finnish “red” emigration in August 1918 in Moscow created the Communist Party of Finland, which declared its goal to be the “dictatorship of the proletariat.”

Disputed issues with Russia were settled thanks to a peace treaty concluded in Dorpat (Tartu) in October 1920. In the same year, Finland was admitted to the League of Nations. The conflict with Sweden over the Åland Islands was resolved through the mediation of the League of Nations in 1921: the archipelago went to Finland, but was demilitarized.

The language issue in the country was resolved by recognizing both Finnish and Swedish languages ​​as state languages. The land program developed by the Social Democrats began to be implemented. In October 1927, a law was passed on the purchase of land and the payment of compensation to landowners. Long-term loans were provided to peasants who had land plots, and cooperatives were organized. Finland joined the Scandinavian Cooperative Union. Modernization and structural changes in the economy led in the late 30s, despite the consequences of the global economic crisis, to stabilization and growth in living standards.

Finland also managed to overcome the threat to the democratic system from both the ultra-left (CPF) and fascist movements.

The Second World War.

Until the outbreak of World War II, the focus of Finland's foreign policy was on difficult relations with the USSR, where it was viewed as a potential enemy and feared about its rapprochement with Germany. The country's leadership still tended to focus on the Scandinavian countries. The situation in Finland became more complicated after the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact to include Finland, the Baltic countries and eastern Poland in the Soviet sphere of influence. Negotiations with the USSR on concluding new military and trade agreements were interrupted, and Stalin demanded the transfer of a number of lands in Karelia and a military base on the Hanko Peninsula.

On November 30, 1939, Soviet troops invaded Finland. A so-called puppet “government” was immediately created. "Finnish Democratic Republic" under the leadership of one of the leaders of the Comintern, Otto Kuusinen. This war, which went down in history as the “winter” war, was essentially unequal, although the Red Army, drained of blood by Stalin’s “purges,” fought ineffectively and suffered much greater losses than Finland. The famous Finnish defensive line of Mannerheim held back the advance of the Red Army for some time, but was broken through in January 1940. The Finns' hope for help from England and France was in vain, and on March 12, 1940, a peace treaty was signed in Moscow. Finland ceded to the USSR the Rybachy Peninsula in the north, part of Karelia with Vyborg, the northern Ladoga region, and the Hanko Peninsula was leased to Russia for a period of 30 years.

The threat from the east in the eyes of the Finns did not disappear, which was facilitated by the proclamation in April 1940 of the union Karelo-Finnish SSR within the USSR. Relations between the USSR and Finland continued to remain tense.

The German attack on the USSR in June 1941 prompted Finland to enter the war on the side of the Germans. The German government promised to return all territories lost under the Moscow Treaty. In December 1941, after repeated protests and notes, the British government declared war on Finland. The following year, the United States demanded that the Finnish government make peace. However, this step was held back by the hope of a German victory. In 1943, President Risto Ryti was succeeded by Mannerheim, who began to look for ways out of the war, in particular, through secret negotiations in Stockholm in the spring of 1944. The summer (1944) offensive of Soviet troops on the Karelian Isthmus led to the resumption of negotiations, and in September 1944 Finland signed an agreement about the truce with the USSR, according to which Finland gave up the Petsamo area, exchanged the leased Hanko Peninsula for the Porkkala-Udd area (returned to Finland in 1956).

The Finns pledged to facilitate the withdrawal of German military units from the country. Monitoring the implementation of the terms of the truce was carried out by the Allied Control Commission, headed by A.A. Zhdanov on the Soviet side. In February 1947, an agreement was signed between Finland and the USSR, confirming the terms of the truce and providing for the payment of reparations in the amount of $300 million.

In a short period of time, the Military Insurance Agency established operational control over the work of industry in order to strictly comply with the deadlines for reparation deliveries to the USSR. In case of delay, Finland was subject to a fine of 5% of the value of goods (more than 200 items) for each month. At the request of the USSR, the following quotas were established for machinery, machine tools and finished products: a third were forest products, a third were transport, machine tools and machines, and a third were ships and cables. Equipment for pulp and paper enterprises, new ships, locomotives, trucks, and cranes were sent to the USSR.

New foreign policy course.

Finland began to be implemented at the final stage of the war, when Marshal Mannerheim was elected president of the republic and managed to lead the country out of the war. In 1946 he was replaced by Juho Cousteau Paasikivi (1870–1956), who sought to stabilize relations with the Soviet Union. In 1948, an agreement on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance was concluded with the USSR, which formed the basis for a policy that was called the Paasikivi Line.

The post-war reconstruction of the economy was successful. Despite the need to pay reparations, life in the country gradually improved. The government provided assistance (land and subsidies) to 450 thousand displaced people from areas transferred to the USSR.

Immediately after the war, the DSNF emerged on the political scene, dominated by communists who were planning a political revolution based on the Eastern European model. However, they did not receive the support of the USSR, whose leadership was not inclined to take risks. The DSNF became part of the government coalition, but suffered a severe defeat in 1948, mainly due to voter dissatisfaction with the communist takeover in Czechoslovakia. In the elections of 1951 and 1954, the DSNF again received significant support (partly as a reaction to the government's economic policies), but it failed to achieve its previous influence.

In the 1950s, Finland's international position strengthened. In 1952 the Olympic Games were held in Helsinki. In 1955 Finland became a member of the UN and the Nordic Council. At the beginning of 1956, the USSR returned Porkkala-Udd to Finland. The transformation of the Karelo-Finnish SSR into the Karelian Autonomous SSR within the RSFSR also brought peace to the minds of the Finns. Urho Kaleva Kekkonen, elected president of the republic in 1956, sought to increase Finland's freedom of action by pursuing an active policy of neutrality. This was manifested, in particular, in the Finnish initiative to hold a conference on security and cooperation in Europe in Helsinki in the summer of 1975. The course towards good neighborly relations between Finland and its eastern neighbor was called the “Paasikivi-Kekkonen line”.

Unemployment rates rose in the 1950s; the abolition of government subsidies for food products caused an increase in prices. In 1955, the government failed to support a wage agreement, which caused a general strike in 1956, which escalated into mass demonstrations and outbreaks of violence. The two parties in power - the SDPF and the Agrarian Union - were unable to agree on supporting prices for agricultural products. Since 1959, farmers have led a series of unstable minority governments.

The 1966 elections led to a sharp turn in Finnish politics. The SDPF and DSNF received an absolute majority of seats in parliament. Together with the center party PFC (formerly the Agrarian Union), they formed a strong coalition that introduced strict wage and price controls to slow inflation and balance the trade deficit. However, in 1971 the DSNF left the coalition and the government resigned.

In the early 1970s, Finland experienced an economic recovery thanks to trade agreements concluded in 1973 with the EEC and Comecon. However, in the mid-1970s, rising oil prices caused a decline in production and rising unemployment. In 1975–1977, a bloc of five parties led by Martti Miettunen (PFC) replaced the ten-year rule of the Social Democrats, led by Kalevi Sorsa. From 1979 to 1982, a coalition of four parties (center and left) was led by Mauno Koivisto. In 1982, President Urho Kekkonen resigned and Mauno Koivisto was elected in his place. Sorsa again became the head of the government. Soon representatives of the DSNF left the cabinet, and the remaining three parties, having received a majority of votes, again formed a government in 1983.

The unprecedented growth of the Finnish economy in the mid-to-late 1980s led to its reorientation towards Western countries. For the first time in the post-war period, non-socialist parties won a majority of seats in the 1987 elections, and Harri Holkeri of the conservative NCP formed a coalition of representatives of four parties, joined by the Social Democrats. Taxes on individuals and companies were reduced, and Finland opened its markets to foreign investment. Liberalization helped achieve near full employment and sparked a boom in construction.

In the spring of 1987 there was a significant change in government policy, when the Coalition Party and the Social Democrats formed a majority government that remained in power until 1991.

Finland at the end of the 20th century.

After the unification of Germany and the collapse of the USSR, the Finnish government began to pursue a policy of rapprochement with Western Europe, which in the past was prevented by agreements concluded with the USSR. In 1991, trade with the USSR decreased by 2/3, but production in Finland itself decreased by more than 6%. Industries that had guaranteed sales in the USSR were unable to strengthen their position in the Western economy, where production was declining.

After the parliamentary elections of 1991, the Social Democrats went into opposition, and the Coalition Party and the Center Party (formerly the Agrarian Party) assumed government responsibility.

Their government, led by Esko Aho, was in power until the spring of 1995. The radical changes that came in world politics in the late 1980s and early 1990s; The end of the division of Europe, the collapse of the communist system and the collapse of the Soviet Union affected Finland in that the spiritual atmosphere changed and the field for foreign policy maneuvers increased. In 1986 Finland became a permanent member of the EFTA and in 1989, finally, a member of the European Council. In September 1990, the government issued a statement arguing that the provisions of the Paris Peace Treaty (1947) concerning the size and material of the armed forces, limiting Finnish sovereignty, had lost their meaning. In 1991, demands began to be made to change the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, but this idea became irrelevant when the Soviet Union ceased to exist at the end of that year. Finland recognized Russia's position as the legal successor of the USSR and in January 1992 concluded a good neighbor agreement. The treaty confirmed the stability of borders between countries. Both of them began implementing joint projects to combat environmental pollution from radioactive waste. The agreement did not include any military clauses, and both sides confirmed that the treaty of friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance was no longer in effect.

In March 1991, 72% of voters gave their votes to the PFC and other non-socialist parties, which were in a clear majority. 36-year-old Esko Aho became the country's Prime Minister.

At the same time, integration processes in Western Europe caused Finland to become increasingly active. Since 1985, Finland has been a full member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), and in 1992 applied for admission to the EEC. Became a member of the EU on January 1, 1995.

EFTA and the European Community, i.e. The Common Market signed an agreement on the European economic sphere in May 1992. This agreement guaranteed EFTA countries freer access to the EU internal market. In Finland, this agreement was seen as the "ultimate" goal, but after Sweden applied to join the EU in the summer of 1991 and after the collapse of the USSR at the end of the year, there was an increasing need for Finland to join the EU completely. Finland submitted an application to join the EU in March 1992 and the European Parliament approved this application in May 1994. In a referendum held in Finland on October 16, 1994, 57% of Finns supported joining the EU. In November of the same year, by a vote of 152 to 45, the Finnish parliament approved Finland's membership in the EU from the beginning of 1995. The capital Helsinki, the capital region and the largely developed south of the country voted in favor. The northern regions, provinces and small settlements spoke out “against”.

Since 1994, presidential elections began to be held by direct popular will. The candidate from the Social Democrats, State Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Martti Ahtisaari, was elected president, receiving approximately 54% of the votes in the second round.

In the parliamentary elections held in early 1995, the Finnish Center Party suffered a crushing defeat, and the newly elected SDPF chairman Paavo Lipponen formed a government unique in Finnish history based on the Social Democrats and the National Coalition Party. In addition, the government included the Greens, the Left Union and the Swedish People's Party. Lipponen's "rainbow government" operated for the entire four-year period. The central goals of the government were to integrate Finland into the structures of the European Union, get the economy working again and reduce high unemployment.

Finland in the 21st century.

In the 1999 elections, the non-socialist majority in parliament strengthened as the National Coalition Party and the Finnish Center, which remained in opposition, gained stronger support. The SDPF lost votes, but still retained its position as the largest group in parliament with its 51 seats. The election results had no impact on the basis of the government, and Paavo Lipponen created his second government on the same basis as the first. The center of Finland again went into opposition. In February 2000, Tarja Halonen (SDPF) became the first woman elected President of Finland. The former foreign minister won an almost equal final battle against Center Party Chairman Esko Aho (51.6% versus 48.4% of the vote). In 2001, Finland entered the Schengen area, and in 2002 adopted the euro as its national currency instead of the mark.

In the January 2006 elections, Tarja Halonen secured the support of 51.8% of the votes. Her only rival, former Finnish Finance Minister Sauli Niinisto, scored 48.2%.

In March 2007, the next parliamentary elections were held. A coalition government was formed from right-wing parties: the National Coalition and the Finnish Center Party. The Social Democratic Party also received a large number of votes, but did not enter the coalition and became the opposition.
On April 17, 2011, elections to Parliament took place. The following parties received the majority of votes: the National Coalition (20.4% of the votes), the Social Democratic Party (19.1%) and the True Finns Party (19.0% of the votes). The leading parties received fewer votes than before due to the fact that votes were given to the nationalist True Finns party, which ended up in third place.

History of Finland. Petrozavodsk, 1996
Political history of Finland. 1809–1995. M., 1998
Jussila O., Khentilä S, Nevakivi Y. Political history of Finland 1809–1995. M., 1998
XX century. Brief historical encyclopedia in 2 volumes. M., 2001



Northern Europe includes states located on the Scandinavian Peninsula - Norway, Sweden, Finland, as well as on the large island of Iceland in the Atlantic. These states occupy 112 million hectares of territory, more than half of which is occupied by forests and forest lands. In Northern Europe, according to the nature of forests, two subzones are distinguished - coniferous forests (northwestern taiga) and deciduous forests.

The coniferous forest region is the western extremity of the greatest subzone of taiga forests, extending along Northern Europe and.

The forests of Northern Europe are dominated by two coniferous species: Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies).

The broadleaf forest region represents part of the broadleaf forest subzone covering Western, Central and Eastern Europe. In the countries of Northern Europe there are oak, beech, common ash, elm and linden. Birch and aspen are less common. The average forest cover in Finland is 61%, Sweden -57, Norway - 27. These are the largest forest exporters in Europe (coniferous lumber, pulp and paper).

Forests of Norway

The area of ​​the country is 324 thousand km 2; together with the Spitsbergen archipelago, the Jan Mayen Islands and others - 387 thousand km 2. Population - over 4.9 million people. Almost 65% of the country's territory is occupied by flat-topped massifs and plateaus (fjelds), which are part of the Scandinavian mountain system. The climate of the coastal strip is soft and humid, in the mountains it is more severe.

In the mountainous areas adjacent to, the average annual precipitation reaches 2000 mm, in the north (Finmark) and on the eastern slopes - 300-800 mm.

Three vegetation zones are identified on the territory of the country: tundra, forest-tundra, and temperate forests. The tundra occupies the northern part of the country. In the Scandinavian mountains (above 1100 m above sea level) it extends far to the south. The vegetation cover is dominated by lichens, mosses, dwarf birch, juniper, cloudberries, and in the forest-tundra there are birch and spruce woodlands and lingonberries and blueberries are widespread.

Forests extend south of 70° N. w. In the mountains in the north of the country they reach a height of 300-500 m, in the middle part - up to 1000-1100 m. The taiga subzone is dominated by coniferous forests: Scots spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris).

In Finnmark, spruce forests extend along river valleys far to the north. Closed dark coniferous spruce forests grow mainly in the eastern and southeastern parts of the country. On the west coast they are found in isolated areas in places protected from harsh winds, on podzolic and mountain-podzolic soils. In the mountains, the upper limit of coniferous forests passes at an altitude of 400 m in the north and 900 m in the south of the country. Higher up there are deciduous forests, mostly birch, and crooked forests are common. Pine forests are found everywhere, but their main tracts are concentrated in the eastern part of the country and in the west. The northern border of pine forests reaches 70° N. w.

South of 61° N. w. coniferous forests give way to mixed forests, and in the extreme south to deciduous forests. Broad-leaved species predominate up to an altitude of 300-400 m above sea level and are represented by pedunculate oak (Quereus robur) and beech (Fagus sylvatica), forming forest areas on brown forest soils.

Small-leaved species - birch (downy and drooping, or warty), gray alder - are widespread in the forest zone and are found mixed with conifers or form mixed forests with oak and beech in the south. The main reserves of aspen are concentrated in the southern regions of Norway.

Forest swamps and swampy forests are common throughout the taiga zone. On the coast and islands, heathers are widely represented, interspersed with meadows and swamps. The total area of ​​forest lands is 8.9 million hectares. 8.3 million hectares are directly occupied by forests, including coniferous - 5.7 million hectares (68.6%), deciduous - 2.6 million hectares (31.3%). Shrubs occupy 0.6 million hectares. The average forest cover of the country in relation to the total area is 27%, in relation to the landmass of the mainland - 33.2%.

According to the form of ownership, Norway's forests are divided into state (1.37 million hectares), public (0.2 million hectares) and private (5.5 million hectares). Of the total timber reserve of 512 million m3, coniferous species account for 425 million m3 (82.8%). For individual tree species, the reserve is distributed as follows: spruce - 52%, pine - 31, birch - 14, oak, beech and other deciduous trees - 3%. The total annual increase in wood in exploited forests is 16.5 million m3, including the net increase (without bark) of coniferous species - 12.5 million m3, deciduous - 3.1 million m3. The average wood supply per 1 hectare in exploited forests is 62 m 3 , including 75 m 3 in coniferous forests and 34 m 3 in deciduous forests; in some areas it ranges from 55 to 85 m3.

Over the past 30 years, the timber supply in productive forests in Norway has increased by 34%, growth by 50%. This was achieved by changing the age structure of the forest, better forest care, land reclamation, application of mineral fertilizers, etc. The estimated volume of forest use is 9-9.5 million m 3, and in fact the volume of harvesting in recent years has reached 8.7- 9 million m3, including commercial timber 7.8-8.0 million m3.

Only 65-70% of the annual timber growth in the country is cut down. Most of the forest areas are well regenerated naturally. Where this does not happen, forest crops are created. When restoring forests, mainly common spruce is used, which is planted on the best. On soils of average productivity, mixed crops of pine and spruce are allowed. On poor soils, pine is used for afforestation. In the northern regions, reforestation is carried out due to birch. Forest crops are created by sowing and planting (the latter method predominates). By 2008, reforestation work had been carried out on an area of ​​594 thousand hectares. In 2009, forest crops, mainly coniferous, were planted on an area of ​​27 thousand hectares. It is expected that from 2010 to 2035, 875 thousand hectares of forest crops will be created, including about 35 thousand hectares on non-forest lands and 840 thousand hectares on areas freed from felling.

It has been established that in pine crops the percentage of empty planting places is almost 2 times higher than in spruce crops. Pine crops are more often damaged by fires, forest animals and suffer from snow blows. The productivity of forest crops is 20 - 30% higher than the productivity of natural forests. Norway has a reserve area (silvicultural fund) for afforestation work: about 500 thousand hectares of the country's land cannot be used in agriculture due to their low productivity. Forestry on these lands will make it possible in the future to obtain an additional 2 million m3 of wood annually.

All forestry work, as well as the study of the forest fund, is carried out under the guidance of forest specialists from the Department of State Forests of the Ministry of Agriculture. It also manages the activities of authorities in protected areas. The country has 3 national parks and 30 nature reserves. The largest national park is Børgefjell (about 110 thousand hectares). It consists of a mountain range extending at an altitude of 450-1700 meters above sea level: spruce, birch and willow forests with a unique fauna (elk, wolverine, arctic fox). Ronnan National Park (57.5 thousand hectares) includes a mountain range with spruce and small-leaved forests, northern fauna (reindeer, elk, otter and various species of birds). The North Cape Hornvika Park, located in Finnmark on the island of Magere, has a typical tundra landscape and picturesque fjords.

The largest of the reserves is Junkerdalsura (44 thousand hectares). It includes part of the river basin. Lenselv with distinctive plant communities. On the Dovrefjell plateau in the Fonstumur nature reserve (900 ha), birch forests, swamps and lakes with interesting avifauna are preserved. In the vicinity of Oslo, the Nordmark Nature Reserve (2800 hectares) has been created. It contains broad-leaved and coniferous forests.

Forests of Sweden

The total area of ​​the country is 450 thousand km 2. Population - about 9.5 million people. The predominant terrain is a flat-hilly plateau with numerous lakes. The Scandinavian Mountains extend to the north-west of Sweden. The climate of northern Sweden is continental, with long, harsh and snowy winters; in the central part - moderate; in the south - soft, sea. Precipitation amounts range from 280-300 mm in the north to 1000 mm in the southwest of the country. The soil cover is dominated by podzolic soils. In the south of Sweden there are brown soils.

Sweden is one of the most forested countries in Europe: over half (51%) of its territory is covered with forest. The total area of ​​forest land is 27.3 million hectares, of which 1.5 million hectares are unforested, which is 5% of the land. Forests occupy 23.4 million hectares, bushes - 2.4 million hectares. The country's forested area is divided into two regions: the coniferous forest region, lying north of 60° N. sh., and an area of ​​deciduous-coniferous forests, often called the beech forest area due to the predominance of beech in it.

In the area of ​​coniferous forests, the most common species are Scots pine and Norway spruce. The deciduous trees that grow here are birch and aspen. The southern part of the area is characterized by ash (Fraxinus excelsior), elm (Ulmus glabra), maple (Acer platanoibes), linden (Tilia cordata) and oak (Q. robur). In the area of ​​deciduous-coniferous forests, in addition to beech (Fagus sylvatica), oak species (Q. robur and Q. sessililora) are widespread. Ash, maple and elm are found in large areas. There are no natural coniferous forests in this area, but cultivated plantations, mainly spruce, are quite common.

The composition of forest species is homogeneous. Spruce (45%) and pine (40%) predominate. The share of deciduous trees (mainly birch) accounts for 15%. The age composition of forests is characterized by equal participation of young, middle-aged and mature plantations. The logging turnover in the south of the country is set at 80-100 years, in the central part - 100-120 years, in the north - over 120 years. 55-60% of cut-down areas in the country are restored naturally, and 40-45% - artificially.

Large volumes of thinning are carried out, which provide almost half of the harvested volume of wood. The total timber reserves in the country are 2,288 million m3. The average wood supply per 1 hectare is 97 m2. Coniferous plantings with a reserve of up to 50 m 3 /ha occupy 24% of the area, from 50 to 150 m 3 /ha - 50%, over 150 m 3 /ha - 26% of the territory. The distribution of wood reserves per 1 hectare of plantations and deciduous trees is similar. Annual wood growth is 78 million m3, or 3.4 m3/ha. The share of coniferous species accounts for about 85% of the increase, and the share of deciduous species - 15%. In the forests of Sweden, high-density plantings predominate - 62%, medium-density ones occupy 33%, low-density ones - 5%. The average annual volume of wood harvesting in Sweden over the past 10 years is 52.7 million m3. Timber harvesting volumes reach only 80% of annual growth.

Of all harvested timber, coniferous species account for about 89%, and deciduous species - 11%. Industrial wood makes up 88% of the harvest, firewood - 12%. Swedish forestry products provide raw materials for one of the country's leading industries - the wood processing industry. In terms of paper and cardboard production, Sweden ranks fifth in the capitalist world (after the USA and Canada). Every year Sweden imports wood pulp from Finland and Norway.

Research work in forestry and training of specialists is carried out by the Higher Forestry School in Stockholm. Sweden has adopted a law providing for mandatory reforestation of logging sites. In accordance with this law, the forest owner is obliged to ensure the renewal of logging areas with valuable species: in southern Sweden - within 2-3 years, in northern Sweden - no later than 10 years after cutting. The implementation of the law is monitored by state forest inspectors. The cultivation of forests on waste lands is encouraged. In these cases, the state assumes half of the costs. In the mountainous regions, in the north and north-west of the country, forest management is limited, since forests here play a soil-protective and water-regulating role.

In the southern agricultural regions, great importance is attached to protective afforestation.

Much attention is paid to drainage work in Sweden. Forest crops of pine, spruce and larch are grown on drained peatlands. The use of mineral fertilizers gives good results. Of the total forested area of ​​Sweden, the state owns 18%, other public organizations - 6, industrial companies - 26 and private owner-farmers - 50%. Public and state forests are concentrated mainly in Northern Sweden. All state forests are divided into 10 districts with an area of ​​approximately 90-800 thousand hectares. On the territory of each district there are 8-14 revires (forestry farms) with an area of ​​10-70 thousand hectares. Reveres are divided into 3-8 district forest districts. Reveres are complex farms that carry out forest exploitation, forest growing, nature conservation, and hunting on their territory. State forests are managed by the State Forests Department of the Ministry of Industry. In private forests, management is carried out by the Department of Private Forests of the Ministry of Agriculture. The country has 16 national parks (600 thousand hectares), 850 forest reserves (51 thousand hectares), more than 600 natural monuments and about 400 natural parks for organized recreation. The largest national parks are Abisko, Muddus and Sarek Shefallet.

Forests of Finland

The country's territory is 337 thousand km 2, along with almost 60 thousand lakes, which in some areas occupy up to 50% of the territory. Population - about 5.4 million people. The climate of the interior regions of the country is temperate continental, while the coastal regions are maritime. Most of Finland's territory is occupied by taiga-type forests. The main tree species are pine (over 50% of the forested area) and spruce (about 25%). Birch is widespread, forming continuous tracts in places in the north. In the extreme south of the country, along the Gulf of Finland, mixed forests stretch, where oak, elm, maple, and hazel grow along with pine and spruce. In the southwestern part of the country and on the Alan Islands there are separate groves with oak and ash. In the mountains there is an altitudinal zonation of vegetation. The lower parts of the slopes are covered with conifers; higher up there are birch forests, which are replaced even higher by mountain-tundra vegetation. Alder is found along river valleys and in moist areas of the sea and lake coasts. Heather and a variety of northern berry plants play a significant role in the grass and shrub cover of forests.

About 1/3 of the country's area is occupied by swamps. The most characteristic of the country are forested raised bogs (ryams), found mainly in the south. They usually grow low-growing pines. In lower areas blueberries, wild rosemary, dwarf birch and sphagnum moss are abundant. About 1/6 of the total swamp area is occupied by lowland forest swamps. Spruce and birch grow here, and among the shrubs there are blueberries and lingonberries; grass cover is well developed.

According to forest fund records, the area of ​​forest land in Finland (according to 2005 estimates) is 22.3 million hectares. Closed forests occupy 18.7 million hectares, of which coniferous forests - 17.1 million hectares, deciduous forests - 1.6 million hectares. The area under bushes is 3.7 million hectares. According to productivity, forest lands are divided into: productive, with an average increase of more than 1 m 3 / ha, unproductive, with an average increase of less than 1 m 3 / ha, and unproductive, represented by wastelands (rocky lands, sands, swamps). In terms of total forest area, Finland ranks second among the capitalist countries of Europe (after Sweden), and in terms of forest cover it ranks first - 61%. In most of the country, forest cover exceeds 60-70%; in the south, where agriculture is most developed, it drops to 40-50%. About 60-70% of forest lands are privately owned. Timber companies own about 10% of the forests.

In the center of the country, coniferous and mixed forests predominate, in the north - deciduous forests, formed mainly by downy birch (Betula pubescens).

According to the classification adopted in the country, forests are divided into five classes. The first class includes dry forests with a homogeneous tree stand (mainly pine). The second class is fresh moss forests of spruce, pine and birch. Forests with a diverse composition of species constitute the third class. The fourth class includes damp forests with spruce, alder and aspen. The fifth class includes swamp forests of pine, less often spruce and birch. The main types of pine forests are lingonberries and blueberries, spruce forests are blueberries and sorrel-blueberries. The average age of forests is about 90 years; in the south it is approximately 60 years, in the north - 130 years.

The total standing timber reserve is 1.5 billion m 3, including 1.2 billion m 3 (81.6%) of coniferous species. The net annual increase is determined at 55.8 million m 3. Annual timber harvest in the period 1995-2005. reached a size of 44-48 million m 3, including coniferous 35-37 million m 3, deciduous 9-11 million m 3. Of the total amount of harvested timber, commercial timber accounts for 35 million m 3 . The volume of timber harvesting in 2009 amounted to 48 million m3. The Forestry Planning Committee has developed a program of forestry activities, which provides for a felling volume of 47 million m 3 . There is a planned transition from selective logging to restoration logging of overmature and low-productivity forests, an increase in the volume of reforestation work, and an increase in the productivity of forest lands.

Along with natural reforestation, artificial afforestation is used on a large scale in the country. Forest crops of pine are created by sowing and planting, spruce - only by planting. The area occupied by forest crops is determined to be 1.7 million hectares. Every year, 145 thousand hectares of area are allocated for planting. Coniferous trees (mainly pine) predominate in forest plantations.

Much attention is paid to reclamation work. About 2.5 million hectares of swamps and forested wetlands have been drained in the country. Another 4.7 million hectares of area are subject to further drainage, of which 2.8 million hectares are swamps suitable for afforestation after drainage, 1 million hectares - after drainage and application of fertilizers; 0.9 million hectares are swampy forest areas that require drainage. It is believed that the average annual growth of wood on drained lands in the north of the country reaches 3 m 3 /ha, in the middle part - 4-5, in the south - 7 m 3 / ha. To increase forest productivity, Finnish foresters carry out a number of measures to fertilize forest lands. The construction of a permanent network of roads is envisaged in forest plantations. There are more than 12.5 thousand km of roads. Wood processing is a leading branch of the forest industry. The products are mainly exported, accounting for more than 2/3 of the country's total exports.

In total exports, the share of pulp and paper products is about 50%, woodworking products - about 20%.

To preserve local landscapes and valuable populations of tree species, the country has created 15 strictly protected natural parks (87 thousand hectares), 9 national parks (about 105 thousand hectares), more than 350 nature reserves, and approximately 1000 natural monuments. Of the national parks, the largest are Lemmenjoki (38.5 thousand hectares), Oulanka (10.7 thousand hectares), Pallas-Ounastunturi (50 thousand hectares); from natural parks - Pisavara (5 thousand hectares).

Forests of Iceland

Territory - 103 thousand km 2. Population - 319 thousand people. There are about 140 and several hundred hot springs and geysers on the island. About 14% of the territory is occupied by glaciers, vast areas are covered with volcanic lava. The climate is subpolar, oceanic. Winter is mild, damp, with thaws; summer is cool and cloudy. The position of the island near the Arctic Circle and the moderating influence of the Atlantic Ocean on the climate give originality and special flavor to the nature of the country. Characterized by numerous transitions from tundra soils, where the main type of vegetation is shrub tundra, to podzolic soils of the forest zone. Low-growing forests (2-3 m), severely destroyed since the settlement of the island, are currently formed by birches, willows, mountain ash and juniper bushes. About 90% of the forest area is shrubby small forest. In the past, most of the country was covered with sparse birch forests, but to date, as a result of human economic activity, the area of ​​these forests has decreased significantly and amounts to 100 thousand hectares. Forest cover is 0.01%. The species composition of the remaining forests is very poor: birch (Betula pubescens), mixed with rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), willows and common juniper (Juniperus communis). The best birch plantings at 40-50 years of age have a height of 6-8 m and give an annual increase of 1-2 m 3 /ha. Since the beginning of the 20th century. In Iceland, mostly coniferous trees are planted. Of all the introduced species, the Siberian pine pine (Pinus sibieica) acclimatized better than others. Good results are also obtained by Siberian larch (Larix sibirica), the height of which at 24-25 years of age reaches 7.5-10 m. Among other exotics, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), gray spruce (Picea glauca) and prickly spruce ( Picea pungens). A large place in forest plantings is given to Norway spruce. The total area of ​​newly created forest plantations in Iceland is 4 thousand hectares, the volume of annual silvicultural work is 100-200 hectares. Forestry in the country is managed by the Association of Icelandic Foresters and the State Forest Service. To protect the most picturesque landscapes, 6 nature reserves with an area of ​​over 15 thousand hectares and one national park - Thingvellir (4 thousand hectares) were created.

 

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