Aircraft structure diagram name. Main parts of the aircraft. Airplane structure. Popular Mechanics Research

The main parts of the aircraft include:

· fuselage;

· plumage;

· power point;

· control system.

Wing(1) designed to create lift Y and provide lateral stability, and ailerons located at the ends of the wing in the tail section provide lateral control of the aircraft.

The wing is equipped with mechanization (flaps, flaps, slats), which improves takeoff and landing characteristics. Fuel can be placed in the wing; landing gear, engines, external fuel tanks, and weapons can be attached to the wing.

Fuselage (2) designed to accommodate the crew, passengers, cargo, it is the main power part of the aircraft, because All other parts of the aircraft are attached to it.

Plumage is divided into horizontal: stabilizer (3) and elevator (4), and vertical: (keel (5) and rudder (6).

Horizontal tail (G.O) provides longitudinal stability ( stabilizer) and controllability ( elevator).

Vertical tail (V.O) provides directional stability ( keel) and controllability ( rudder).

Chassis(7) – This is an aircraft support system designed for stable movement of an aircraft on the ground, parking, takeoff and landing. To reduce drag on modern aircraft, the landing gear is retracted during flight.

Powerplant (8) includes engines, fuel and oil systems and is designed to create in flight the thrust necessary to move the aircraft.

Control system divided into main and auxiliary.

Main control system designed to control the movement of the aircraft, and auxiliary - to control individual parts and assemblies.

The main control system includes: a control stick (a control wheel with a column on heavy aircraft) and pedals, as well as control wiring that connects the rudders to the control levers.

The aircraft control system is designed in such a way that the actions on the control levers correspond to the natural reflexes of the pilot.

When the control stick (control column) is tilted forward (“away from you”), the elevator deflects down and the nose of the aircraft goes down. When the stick moves toward you, the elevator deflects upward and the plane lifts its nose up.

The rudder is deflected by pressing the pedals. If the pilot presses the right pedal, the rudder moves to the right and the plane turns to the right and vice versa.

Many people wonder: how does an airplane work? After all, it is thanks to the special design of such a vehicle and the materials used that such large and heavy airliners are able to rise into the air. Main components:

wings;
fuselage;
"plumage";
take-off and landing device;
power point;
control systems.

Each of these components has a special structure and may contain different types of components depending on the specific aircraft model. A detailed description of the parts of the aircraft will allow you not only to find out how it works, but also to understand the principle by which it is possible to fly at high speed.

Airplane structure

The fuselage is a body that includes several components. It assembles wings, tail unit, power plant, chassis and other elements into a single system. The hull houses passengers, if we consider the design of a passenger aircraft. This part also houses equipment, fuels, engines and chassis. Any payload, be it passengers, luggage or transported equipment/goods, is placed in this part. For example, in military aircraft, weapons and other military equipment are located in this part. The characteristic streamlined drop-shaped body shape helps minimize drag while the aircraft is moving.

Wings

When listing the main parts of an aircraft, one cannot fail to mention the wings. The wing of the aircraft consists of two consoles: right and left. The main function of this element is to create lift. As an additional aid for these purposes, many modern aircraft have a fuselage with a flat bottom surface.

The wings of the aircraft are also equipped with the necessary “organs” for control during flight, namely for making turns in one direction or another. To improve takeoff and landing performance, the wings are additionally equipped with takeoff and landing mechanisms. They regulate the movement of the aircraft during takeoff and run, and also control takeoff and landing speeds. In some models, the design of the aircraft wing allows fuel to be placed in it.

In addition to two consoles, the wings are also equipped with two ailerons. These are moving components that make it possible to control the aircraft relative to the longitudinal axis. These elements function synchronously. However, they deviate in different directions. If one leans up, then the other leans down. The lifting force on a console tilted upward decreases. Due to this, the fuselage rotates.

Vertical tail

Plumage

The aircraft structure also includes a “tail”. This is another significant design element that includes the fin and stabilizer. The stabilizer has two consoles, like the wings of an aircraft. The main function of this component is to stabilize the movement of the aircraft. Thanks to this element, the aircraft manages to maintain the required altitude during flight under various atmospheric influences.

Keel– a component of the “feather”, which is responsible for maintaining the desired direction during movement. To change direction or height, two special rudders are provided, with the help of which these two elements of the “tail” are controlled.

It is worth considering that parts of the aircraft may have different names. For example, the “tail” of an aircraft in some cases refers to the rear fuselage and empennage, and sometimes this concept is used to refer solely to the fin.

Chassis

This part of the aircraft is also called the landing gear. Thanks to this component, not only take-off, but also a soft landing is ensured. The chassis is a whole mechanism of various devices. It's not just wheels. The takeoff and landing mechanism is much more complex. Its component alone (the cleaning/exhaust system) is a complex installation.

Power point

It is through the operation of the engine that the airliner is set in motion. The power plant is usually located either on the fuselage or under the wing. To understand how an airplane works, you need to understand the design of its engine. Main details:

turbine;
fan;
compressor;
the combustion chamber;
nozzle.

At the beginning of the turbine there is a fan. It provides two functions at once: it pumps air and cools all components of the engine. Behind this element there is a compressor. Under high pressure, it transfers the air flow into the combustion chamber. Here, air is mixed with fuel, and the resulting mixture is ignited. After this, the flow is directed into the main part of the turbine, and it begins to rotate. The aircraft turbine design ensures the rotation of the fan. This ensures a closed system. To operate the engine, you only need to constantly supply air and fuel.

Assembly of simple airplanes

Aircraft classification

All airliners are divided into two main groups depending on their purpose: military and civilian. The main difference between aircraft of the second type is the presence of a cabin, which is equipped specifically for transporting passengers. Passenger aircraft, in turn, are divided into long-haul short-haul (fly over distances of up to 2000 km), medium-haul (up to 4,000 km) and long-haul (up to 9,000 km). For long distance flights, intercontinental airliners are used. Also, depending on the type and device, such aircraft vary in weight.

Design features

The design of an airliner may vary depending on the specific type and purpose. Aerodynamically designed airplanes can have different wing geometries. Most often, for passenger flights, aircraft that are designed according to the classical design are used. The above-described arrangement of the main parts applies specifically to such airliners. Models of this type have a shortened nose. This provides improved visibility of the front hemisphere. The main disadvantage of such aircraft is the relatively low efficiency, which is explained by the need to use a large surface area and, accordingly, mass.

Another type of aircraft is called “duck” because of the specific shape and location of the wing. The main parts in these models are placed differently than in classic ones. The horizontal tail (installed at the top of the keel) is located in front of the wing. This helps increase lift. And also thanks to this arrangement it is possible to reduce the mass and area of the tail. In this case, the vertical tail (altitude stabilizer) operates in an undisturbed flow, which significantly increases its efficiency. Airplanes of this type are easier to fly than models of the classic type. One of the disadvantages is the reduced visibility of the lower hemisphere due to the presence of tail in front of the wing.

In contact with

When traveling by plane, each of us usually has our own idea of where it is more convenient for us to sit. Some people always want to choose a seat by the window; some passengers, on the contrary, prefer the outermost row so that they can stretch their legs into the aisle between the rows. However, most people do not like to sit in the back of the plane. As it turned out, even these not the most convenient places have their advantages.

To begin with, we note that the overwhelming number of leading airlines fly two types of aircraft: the Airbus family of airliners and the popular Boeing 777.

In Airbus, the most comfortable seat is 1A. Here, a number of pleasant advantages await the passenger: additional legroom, a good “view” from the window. The only negative is that it is one of the coldest places on board.

Many passengers try to choose seats at the front of the cabin, right after business class. The reasons are different - drinks and food are offered first. And they can also be the first to leave the plane after landing.

True, the first rows also have their drawbacks. Typically, mounts for baby strollers or bassinets are installed in this part of the aircraft, and passengers with small children are also seated here. Therefore, in an unsuccessful situation, such a neighborhood cannot be called calm.

In the tail

Did you know that the seats at the back of any plane are the safest?! According to statistics, almost 70% of passengers who survived plane crashes were sitting in the rear of the plane.

Despite this, few passengers choose this part of the cabin. The proximity to the toilet or kitchen and the corresponding smells are not very comfortable for travelers.

And on a Boeing 777, perhaps the most uncomfortable seats are in the last two rows - the 44th and 45th. This is the complete “antipode” of the first row described above. Here, in addition to the forced proximity to the toilet and kitchen, there is also limited legroom, and, alas, the inability to recline the back of the chair in the last row: in some cases it can simply be rigidly fixed.

But if the board flies incomplete, then the last rows most often remain free. So, passengers who have seats in the last part of the cabin have the opportunity to take a whole row of seats on one side - to sleep or simply sit in greater comfort.

At the wings

As for the seats in the middle of the cabin, they are considered neutral: when the cabin is fully loaded, passengers can sit on both sides of you, and their build can be quite impressive. So it remains to be seen what could be worse: sitting in the “tail” or in the middle, sandwiched between two fat men and resting your knees on the back of the chair reclined in front.

Advice: look at the layout of the plane in advance, if, of course, you know which one you will fly on - Boeing or Airbus. This information can be found on the airline's official website.

Comfortable seats on an airplane are usually considered to be window seats. Firstly, you can simply look out the airplane window, secondly, it is more comfortable to sleep in such a place, and in general there is minimal contact with other surrounding passengers. But if you plan to actively move around the cabin during the flight - this also happens - then a window seat may create inconvenience for you and your row neighbors.

A certain category of passengers definitely needs to stretch their legs. We advise such people to choose seats in the aisle or at the exits - emergency or regular, because there are no seats in front, which means the distance allows them to stretch their legs. But in these places you cannot keep either hand luggage or even handbags on your lap - the approach to the emergency exit hatches must be as free as possible.

Have time to choose your seat

Choosing the right seats on a plane is no longer a problem: almost all leading airlines offer online check-in for flights - usually 24-30 hours before departure. There is another “old-fashioned” way - to arrive early when registration opens. Typically, such disciplined passengers get seats in the first third of the cabin, because tickets are distributed starting from the front of the plane. Well, those who are still late will have to be content with seats in the very “tail”.

There is another way to get around your “competitors” on the flight. Register at the self-check-in kiosk while already at the airport. And then with the boarding pass in hand .

Optional trifles

Depending on the direction of flight, the day of the week and time of departure become important. Morning and evening flights are usually the busiest. According to statistics, the chance of getting on an unbooked flight is much higher if you fly from Monday to Thursday, and even in the middle of the day.

The designation of seats in the rows of the cabin can be in Russian or English. For example: Russian - 1A, 1B, 1B, 1G, 1D, 1E, English - 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F. And in this case, place 1B (English “B”) is not at all the same as place 1B (Russian “B”). After all, these places are different: the first is near the aisle, the second is in the middle.

So it's easier to remember this way. For any cabin layout: seat 1A will always be by the window, and seat 1C by the aisle.

It matters which way you fly. After all, if the sun shines directly into your eyes, you will have to hide behind the porthole curtains. If this is important to you and you are well versed in the cardinal directions, then determine in which direction you are flying. If from east to west, then the sun will shine from the left. If from west to east, then on the right. When flying from north to south, the sun will be on the left in the morning, but in the evening it will be on the right. If from south to north, then vice versa.

Well, if the “stars” did not align for you, and you got the wrong seat, then you can always change it - if the salon is not full. To do this, you need to contact the flight attendants within 5 minutes after boarding the plane is completed and the flight attendant announces “Boarding is over”. If you do not have time to do this, you will have to wait until the plane reaches the required altitude and passengers are not allowed to leave their seats.

Have a good flight!

No matter how many times they tried to come up with an airplane before, the whole point turned out to be in the design. Somehow, huge airliners get into the air, and the safety of passengers is a very important consideration. This article will examine in detail the structure of the aircraft, namely its main parts.

The aircraft design includes:

Fuselage
Wings
Tail
Takeoff and landing device
Propulsion system
Control systems, avionics

Each of these parts is vital for the aircraft to fly quickly and safely. Also, an analysis of the components will help you understand how the plane works, and why everything was done this way and not otherwise.

This structural element represents a certain base of the aircraft, a load-bearing part to which other parts of the aircraft are attached. It gathers all the major parts of the aircraft around: the tail, landing gear and propulsion system, and the teardrop shape does a great job of absorbing the opposing force as it moves through the air. The interior of the case is designed to transport valuable cargo, be it weapons or military equipment, or passengers; Various equipment and fuel are also located here.

Wings

It is very difficult to find an aircraft whose design does not include the placement of its most recognizable part - the wings. This element serves to generate lifting power, and in modern designs, to increase this parameter, the wings are placed in the flat base of the aircraft fuselage.

The wings themselves include in their design the presence of special mechanisms, with the support of which the aircraft turns in one direction. In addition, this part of the aircraft is equipped with a takeoff and landing device, which regulates the movement of the aircraft during takeoffs and landings, and assists in controlling takeoff and landing speeds. It should also be noted that some aircraft designs include fuel tanks in the wings.

In addition, each wing is equipped with a console. With the help of moving components called ailerons, the ship is controlled relative to its longitudinal axis; The functioning of these elements is carried out completely synchronously. However, when one element turns one way, the other will go the opposite way; This is precisely why the fuselage body rotates.

Tail

This element of the aircraft structure is an equally important element. The tail of an aircraft consists of a fin and a stabilizer. The stabilizer, like the wings, has two consoles - right and left; The main purpose of this element is to regulate the movement of the aircraft and maintain a given altitude, taking into account the influence of various weather conditions.

The fin is also an integral part of the tail, which is responsible for maintaining the desired direction of the aircraft during its flight. In order to change the height and direction, two special rudders were created, each of which controls its own part of the tail unit. An important point is that aircraft elements may not always be called by exactly these names: for example, the tail part of the fuselage can be called the tail section, and sometimes only the keel is designated by this name.

Takeoff and landing device

The short name of the device is the landing gear, which is the main device thanks to which a successful takeoff and smooth landing are carried out. Do not underestimate this element of the aircraft, since its design is much more complex than just wheels extending out of the fuselage. If you take a closer look at one exhaust and cleaning system, it becomes clear that the design is very serious and consists of a whole set of different mechanisms and devices.

Propulsion system

The device is the main driving force that pushes the aircraft forward. Its location is most often located either under the wing or under the fuselage. The engine also consists of some essential parts, without which its operation is not possible.

Main engine parts:

Turbine
Fan
Compressor
The combustion chamber
Nozzle

The fan, located at the very beginning of the turbine, serves several functions: it pumps entrained air and cools the engine elements. Immediately after it there is a compressor that takes the air supplied by the fan and launches it into the combustion chamber under strong pressure. Now the fuel is mixed with air, and the resulting substance is set on fire.

The flow from the explosion of this fuel mixture splashes into the main part of the turbine, which causes it to rotate. Also, a device for twisting the turbine ensures constant rotation of the fan, forming in a similar way a cyclic system that will always work as long as air and fuel flow from the combustion chamber.

Control systems

Avionics is an electronic computing complex made up of various on-board devices of an aircraft system that help read current information during navigation and orientation of moving objects. Without this mandatory component, correct and correct control of any aircraft such as an airliner would simply be impossible. These systems also ensure uninterrupted operation of the aircraft; This includes functions such as autopilot, anti-icing system, on-board power supply and many others.

Aircraft classification and design features

Without exception, all aircraft can be divided into two main categories: civil and military. Their most basic difference is the presence of a cabin that is designed deliberately for the purpose of transporting passengers. Passenger aircraft themselves are divided by capacity into long-haul short-haul (flight distance up to 2000 km), medium-haul (up to 4000 km) and long-haul (up to 9000 km)

If the flight range is even greater, then intercontinental type airliners are used for this. In addition, different types of aircraft have differences in weight. Also, airliners may differ due to a certain type and, directly, purpose.

The design of an aircraft can often have different wing geometries. For aircraft that carry passenger transportation, the design of the wings does not differ from the classic one, which is typical for airliners. Models of aircraft of this type have a shortened nose component, and because of this they have a relatively low efficiency.

There is another specific form that is called “duck”, due to its arrangement of wings. The horizontal tail is placed in front of the wing, which increases lift. The disadvantage of this design is the reduction in the viewing area of the lower hemisphere due to the presence of the tail in front of the wing itself.

So we figured out what the plane consists of. As you may have already noticed, the design is quite complex, and various numerous parts must work harmoniously so that the plane can take off and land successfully after a smooth flight. The design is often specific and can vary significantly depending on the model and purpose of the aircraft.

Airplane

a heavier-than-air aircraft with a wing on which aerodynamic lift is generated during movement, and a power plant that creates thrust for flight in the atmosphere. The main parts of the aircraft: wing (one or two), empennage (all this together is called the airframe), avionics; military aircraft also have aviation weapons.

The wing is the main part of the aircraft. Airplanes with one wing are called monoplanes, with two - biplanes. The middle part of the wing, attached to the fuselage or integral with it, is called the center section; The side detachable parts of the wing - consoles - are attached to the center section. On the wing are located (ailerons, elevons, spoilers) and devices with which the wings are adjusted (flaps, slats, etc.). The wing houses fuel tanks, various units (for example, landing gear), communications, etc. Engines are installed on the wing or under it (on pylons). Up to mid. 20th century the planes had trapezoidal wings (in plan view). With the advent of jet engines, the shape of the wing changed and became swept. in combination with a gas turbine jet engine allows you to achieve flight speeds twice and three times higher.

The fuselage is the body of the aircraft, carrying the wings, tail and landing gear. It houses the crew cabin and passenger compartment, cargo compartments, and equipment. Sometimes the fuselage is replaced with tail booms or combined with the wing. Until the 1930s Most aircraft had open cockpits. With the increase in flight speed and altitude, the cabins began to be covered with a streamlined “canopy”. Flights at high altitudes required the creation of sealed cabins that provided them with the pressure and temperature necessary for normal human life. The streamlined cigar-shaped fuselage provides it with minimal resistance to air flow in flight. Supersonic aircraft have a fuselage with a very pointed nose. The cross-sectional shape of the fuselage of modern aircraft can be round, oval, in the form of the intersection of two circles, close to rectangular, etc. Created in the 1965-70s. so-called wide-body aircraft with a fuselage with a diameter of 5.5–6.5 m made it possible to significantly increase the carrying capacity of aircraft (IL-86, USSR; Boeing-747, USA). The fuselage structure consists of load-bearing elements (spars, stringers, frames) and skin. Power elements are made from lightweight and durable structural materials (aluminum and titanium alloys, composite materials). at the dawn of aviation it was made of linen, then from plywood and from cone. 1920 – metal (aluminum and its alloys). The vast majority of aircraft are made using a single-fuselage design, very rarely using a double-boom design, and only a few experimental aircraft are fuselageless, the so-called. (XB-35, USA).

The tail provides stability and controllability of the aircraft in longitudinal and lateral movement. For most aircraft, the empennage is located on the rear of the fuselage and consists of a stabilizer and elevator (horizontal tail), fin and rudder (vertical tail). supersonic aircraft may not have elevators and rudder due to their low efficiency at high speeds. Their functions are performed by steerable (all-rotating) and stabilizer. The design of the tail is similar to that of the wing and in most cases follows its shape. The most common type is single-fin tail, but aircraft with spaced vertical tail are being created (Su-27, MiG-31). There are known cases of creating a V-shaped tail, combining the functions of a keel and stabilizer (Bonanza-35, USA). Many supersonic aircraft, especially military ones, do not have stabilizers (Mirage-2000, France; Vulcan, UK; Tu-144).

The landing gear is used to move the aircraft around the airfield during taxiing and along the runway during takeoff and landing. The most common wheeled chassis. In winter, skis can be installed on light aircraft. U seaplanes Instead of wheels, floats-boats are attached to the chassis. During flight, the wheeled landing gear is retracted into the wing or fuselage to reduce airflow. Sports, training and other light aircraft are often built with fixed landing gear, which are simpler and lighter than retractable ones. Modern jet aircraft have landing gear with a nose gear under the nose of the fuselage and two legs near the center of gravity of the aircraft under the fuselage or wing. This tricycle landing gear ensures safer and more stable movement of the aircraft at higher speeds during take-off and landing. Heavy passenger aircraft are equipped with multi-support and multi-wheel landing gear to reduce loads and pressure on the aircraft. All landing gear is equipped with liquid-gas or liquid shock absorbers to soften the shocks that occur when the aircraft lands and moves along the airfield. For taxiing the aircraft, the front support has a rotating one. The movement of the aircraft on the ground is controlled by separate braking of the main landing gear wheels.

The power plant of the aircraft includes aircraft engines (from 1 to 4), propellers, air intakes, jet nozzles, fuel supply systems, lubrication, control, etc. Almost to the end. 1940s the main type of engine was piston engine internal combustion, driving rotation. From the end 1940s gas turbine engines began to be used on military and civil aviation aircraft jet engines– turbojet and turbofan. The engines are installed in the forward part of the fuselage (mainly on propeller-driven aircraft), built into the wing, suspended on pylons under the wing, installed above the wing (mainly in seaplanes), and placed on the rear part of the fuselage. On heavy passenger aircraft, preference is given to rear-mounted engines, since this reduces noise in the passenger cabin.

1 - ; 2 – cockpit; 3 – toilets; 4.18 – wardrobe; 5.14 – cargo; 6 – luggage; 7 – first passenger cabin with 66 seats; 8 – engine; 9 - ; 10 – vertical wing tip; 11 – external; 12 – inner flap; 13 – second passenger cabin with 234 seats; 15 – cargo on pallets in nets; 16 – emergency exit; 17 – loads in nets; 19 – keel; 20 – rudder; 21 – elevator; 22 – ; 23 – stabilizer; 24 – fuselage; 25 – ; 26 – main landing gear; 27 – ; 28 – fuel compartments; 29 – wings; 30 – buffet with elevator to the lower deck; 31 – cargo floor with spherical supports; 32 – entrance door; 33 – nose landing gear

The aircraft equipment ensures the aircraft, flight safety, and the creation of conditions necessary for the life of crew members and passengers. Aircraft navigation is provided by flight navigation, radio and radar equipment. To increase flight safety, fire fighting equipment, emergency rescue and external equipment, anti-icing and other systems are designed. Life support systems include air conditioning and cabin pressurization units, etc. The use of microprocessor technology in aircraft control systems has made it possible to reduce the number of crews of passenger and transport aircraft to 2–3 people. The aircraft is controlled in flight using elevators and rudder (on the trailing edges of the stabilizers and fin) and ailerons deflected in opposite directions. The pilots control the rudders and ailerons from the cockpit. During scheduled flights along the highway, control of the aircraft is transferred to the autopilot, which not only maintains the flight direction, but also controls the operation of the engines and maintains the specified flight mode.

The armament of military aircraft is determined by their purpose and what tasks they solve in combat. The military is armed with surface-class cruise missiles and air-to-air missiles, aircraft cannons and machine guns, aircraft bombs, aircraft sea mines and torpedoes.

Encyclopedia "Technology". - M.: Rosman. 2006 .

Airplane

(obsolete -) - heavier than air for flights in the atmosphere with the help of a power plant that creates thrust and a fixed wing, on which aerodynamic lift is generated when moving in the air. The immobility of the wing, which distinguishes the wing from rotary-wing aircraft that have a “rotating wing” (main rotor), and from an aircraft with flapping wings (flyers), is to some extent conditional, since in a number of designs the wing can change in flight installation angle, etc. The concept of S., which originated at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. (J. Cayley) and which assumed the flight of an aircraft using a propulsion unit (propeller) and a lifting surface (wing) separated by function, during the development of aircraft technology it turned out to be the most successful in terms of the totality of flight characteristics and operational qualities, and the aircraft became most widespread among aircraft with different principles of creating lift and constructive methods of their implementation ( cm. also Aviation).
Aircraft classification.
Based on their purpose, a distinction is made between civilian and military vehicles. Civil vehicles include passenger, cargo, cargo-passenger, administrative, sports, agricultural, and other vehicles for the national economy. Passenger aircraft are divided into mainline aircraft and aircraft of local airlines. Military aircraft include fighters (air combat aircraft, fighter-bombers, fighter-interceptors, multi-role aircraft), attack aircraft, bombers (front-line, long-range, intercontinental), reconnaissance aircraft (tactical, operational, strategic), military transport aircraft (light, medium, heavy). , anti-submarine, combat support (radar patrol and guidance, jammers, air control posts, in-flight refueling, etc.). Military and civil aviation includes educational, training, ambulance, patrol, and search and rescue aircraft. S. According to the type of propulsion, S. is classified as screw or jet. According to the type of engine, a propeller is often called a piston, turboprop, or jet (in particular, rocket), and according to the number of engines, for example, two-, three-, or four-engine. Depending on the maximum flight speed, aircraft are divided into subsonic (flight M(() 1) and hypersonic (M(() > > 1; often taken M(() > > 4-5). Based on basing conditions, land aircraft are distinguished based, ship-based aircraft, seaplanes (flying boats or floats) and amphibious aircraft, and according to the requirements for the length of the runway - vertical, short and conventional take-off and landing aircraft. Various maneuvering abilities (maximum operational load value). distinguishes maneuverable, limited maneuverable, and non-maneuverable aircraft. According to the stage of development, aircraft are classified as experimental, experimental, and production aircraft, and in contrast to the original model, aircraft with a crew are called manned; for some types, aircraft without a crew are called unmanned. S. (fighters, attack aircraft, training aircraft) often indicate the number of crew members (single or double).
Many airfoil names are determined by their design and aerodynamic design. Based on the number of wings, monoplanes, biplanes (including sesquiplanes), triplanes and polyplanes are distinguished, and monoplanes, depending on the location of the wing relative to the fuselage, can be low-wing, mid-wing and high-wing. A monoplane without external wing reinforcements (struts) is called a cantilever, and with a wing mounted on struts above the fuselage it is called a monoplane. An aircraft with a wing sweep that can be changed in flight is often called an aircraft of variable geometry; depending on the location of the tail, there are aircraft of the normal design (with a tail), aircraft of the "" type (horizontal, no tail) and aircraft of the "" type (with horizontal tail located in front of the wing). According to the type of fuselage, the aircraft can be single-fuselage or double-boom, and the aircraft without a fuselage is called a “flying wing.” S. with a fuselage diameter of more than 5.5-6 m are called wide-body. Vertical take-off and landing aircraft have their own classification (with rotary propellers, rotary wings, lifting or lift-propulsion engines, etc.). Some classification concepts, such as “light”, “heavy”, “long-range”, etc., are arbitrary and do not always have strictly defined boundaries for aircraft of various types (fighters, bombers, transport aircraft). ) may correspond to significantly different numerical values of take-off mass and flight range.
Aerodynamics of the aircraft.
The lifting force that supports the wing in the air is formed as a result of the asymmetric air flow around the wing, which occurs when the wing profile is asymmetrically shaped, oriented at a certain positive angle of attack to the flow, or under the influence of both of these factors. In these cases, the flow velocity on the upper surface of the wing is greater, and the pressure (in accordance with Bernoulli's equation) is less than on the lower surface; As a result, a pressure difference is created under the wing and above the wing and a lifting force arises. Theoretical approaches to determining the lift force of a wing profile (for an ideal incompressible fluid) are reflected in the well-known Zhukovsky theorem. The total aerodynamic force RA (called the aerodynamic force of a glider) acting on the sky when an air flow flows around it can be represented in the speed coordinate system as two components - the aerodynamic lift force Ya and the drag force Xa (in the general case, the presence of a lateral force is also possible Za). The force Ya is determined mainly by the lifting forces of the wing and horizon, and the tail, and the force Xa, which is oppositely directed in relation to the flight speed, owes its origin to the friction of air on the surface of the aircraft (friction resistance), the pressure difference acting on the frontal and rear parts of the aircraft elements ( pressure resistance, cm. Profile drag, Bottom drag), and the flow bevel behind the wing associated with the formation of lift (inductive drag); in addition, at high flight speeds (near- and supersonic), , caused by the formation of shock waves ( cm. Aerodynamic drag). The aerodynamic force of a glider S. and its components are proportional to the velocity pressure
q = V2/2
((() - air density, V - flight speed) and some characteristic area, which is usually taken as S:
Ya = cyaqS,
Xa = cxaqS,
Moreover, the proportionality coefficient (lift coefficient cya and drag coefficient cxa) depend mainly on the geometric shapes of the aircraft’s parts, its orientation in the flow (angle of attack), Reynolds number, and at high speeds also on the M(()) number. Aerodynamic perfection Aircraft is characterized by the ratio of the lift force to the total drag force, called aerodynamic quality:
K = Ya/Xa = cya/cxa
In steady (V = const) horizontal flight, the weight of the aircraft G is balanced by the lift force (Ya = G), and the thrust P of the power plant must compensate for the drag (P = Xa). From the resulting relation G = KP it follows, for example, that the implementation of a higher value of K in the aircraft design would make it possible, at a fixed value of G, to reduce the required thrust for the same flight speed and, therefore, and in some other cases (for example, at the same value P) increase the load capacity or by S. In the early period (before the early 20s), S. had rough aerodynamic shapes and their aerodynamic quality values were in the range K = 4-7. In the 1930s, which had straight wings and a flight speed of 300-350 km/h, values of K = 13-15 were obtained. This was achieved mainly through the use of a cantilever monoplane design, improved wing profiles, streamlined fuselages, closed cockpits, rigid smooth skin (instead of fabric or corrugated metal), retracting the landing gear, cowling engines, etc. With the subsequent creation of higher-speed S. the possibilities for improving aerodynamic efficiency have become more limited. Nevertheless, on passenger S. 80s. with high subsonic flight speeds and swept wings, the maximum values of aerodynamic quality were K = 15-18. On supersonic aircraft, to reduce wave drag, wings with a thin profile, high sweep, or other planform shapes with low aspect ratio are used. However, aircraft with such wings have less subsonic flight speeds than aircraft with subsonic flight speeds.
Aircraft design.
It must provide high aerodynamic characteristics, have the necessary strength, rigidity, survivability, endurance (fatigue resistance), be technologically advanced in production and maintenance, and have a minimum weight (this is one of the main criteria for aircraft perfection). In general, the aircraft consists of the following main parts: wing, fuselage, empennage, landing gear (all of this together is called the airframe), power plant, and on-board equipment; military S. have also.
Wing is the main load-bearing surface of the structure and also ensures its lateral stability. On the wing there are means of its mechanization (flaps, slats, etc.), controls (ailerons, elevons, spoilers), and in some wing configurations, landing gear supports are also fixed and engines are installed. consists of a frame with a longitudinal (spars, stringers) and transverse (ribs) strength set and sheathing. The internal volume of the wing is used to accommodate fuel, various units, communications, etc. The most important moments in the development of aircraft related to the design of the wing were completed in the 30s. the transition from a biplane design to a cantilever monoplane and which began in the late 40s and early 50s. transition from a straight wing to a swept wing. On heavy aircraft with a long flight range, for which it is important to increase the aerodynamic quality, the monoplane design made it possible to increase for this purpose, and for more power-equipped aircraft (fighters), to use a decrease in wing area and drag to increase flight speed. The creation of cantilever monoplanes was made possible thanks to advances in structural mechanics and wing profiling, as well as the use of high-strength materials. The use of a swept wing made it possible to realize the potential for further increasing flight speed when using gas turbine engines. When a certain flight speed (critical number M(())) is reached, local supersonic zones with shock waves are formed on the wing, which leads to the appearance of wave drag. For a swept wing, due to the sliding principle, the occurrence of such unfavorable phenomena is pushed to the region of higher flight speeds (critical number M(() is greater than that of a straight wing); and in supersonic flow, the intensity of the resulting shock waves () of a subsonic wing is usually 20-35(°), and for a supersonic wing it reaches 40-60(°). .
In the 50-80s. A large number of aircraft of various types have been created with turboprop engines and turbojet engines, differing in speed and flight profile, maneuverability, and other properties. Accordingly, wings have been used on them, varying in plan form, aspect ratio, relative thickness, structural-power design, etc. Along with the swept wing, the delta wing has become widespread, combining the properties of high sweep, favorable for high supersonic flight speeds ( () 55-70°), low elongation and small relative profile thickness. In connection with the need to ensure high aerodynamic characteristics for some types of airplanes in a wide range of flight speeds, aircraft were created with a wing that varied in flight (()) 15-70°), which realized the advantages of a straight wing with a relatively large aspect ratio (takeoff and landing modes and at subsonic speeds) and highly swept wings (flight at supersonic speeds). A variation of this scheme is all-rotary. In maneuverable aircraft, a wing with variable sweep along the leading edge has been used, which includes a trapezoidal part with moderate sweep and root flares of a highly swept wing, which improve the load-bearing properties of the wing at high angles of attack. The wing design with a forward-swept wing (FSW) has not become widespread due to the aeroelastic instability (divergence) of the wing at elevated flight speeds. The advent of composite materials opened up the possibility of eliminating this drawback by providing the necessary rigidity of the wing without noticeably weighing the structure, and the COS, which has favorable aerodynamic characteristics at high angles of attack, became available in the late 70s and 80s. the object of extensive theoretical and experimental research. S. of different speed ranges differ in wing elongation
(() = 12/S (l - wing span).
To increase aerodynamic quality, increase (), to reduce wave drag - decrease. If the aspect ratio of subsonic swept wings is usually (-) = 7-8 for passenger and transport aircraft and () = 4-4.5 for fighters, then for supersonic fighters () = 2-3.5. To ensure the necessary lateral stability, the wing consoles are installed (when viewed from the front) at a certain angle to the horizontal plane (the so-called transverse V of the wing). The improvement in the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing is largely due to the improvement of its profile. At various stages of aircraft development, the choice of wing profile was determined by aerodynamic or design requirements and the level of scientific knowledge. A flat wing was found in early aircraft designs, but all the first aircraft to fly already had profiled wings. To obtain greater lifting force, thin curved wings were first used (S. of the early period), and later - wings with a thick profile (cantilever monoplanes of the 20s). As flight speeds increased, less curved and thinner profiles were used. At the end of the 30s. Work was carried out on the so-called laminar profiles of low resistance, but they were not widely used, since ensuring laminar flow placed high demands on the quality of finish and cleanliness of the wing surface. In the 70s For subsonic aircraft, supercritical profiles have been developed that make it possible to increase the value of the critical number M(()). On aircraft with high supersonic flight speeds, to reduce wave drag, wings with a small relative profile thickness ((c) = 2-6%) and a sharp leading edge are used. edge. The geometric parameters of the wing are variable along its span: it has a narrowing, the values of c decrease towards the ends of the wing, aerodynamic and geometric are used, etc.
An important characteristic of S. is equal to
G/S = cyyV2/2.
At all stages of aircraft development, it increased - on high-speed aircraft due to a decrease in wing area in order to reduce drag and increase flight speed, and on heavy aircraft due to an accelerated increase in the mass of the aircraft. With an increase in the specific load on the wing, the take-off speed increases accordingly and landing, the required length of the runway increases, and it also becomes more difficult to pilot the aircraft during landing. The reduction in lift-off speed and landing speed is ensured by the mechanization of the wing, which allows, when deflecting the flaps and flaps, to increase the maximum values of the coefficient cy, and for some structures, also the area of the load-bearing surface. Wing mechanization devices began to be developed in the 20s, and became widespread in the 30s. At first, simple flaps were used, later retractable and slotted flaps (including two- and three-slotted ones) appeared. Some types of wing mechanization (slats, etc.) are also used in flight, during maneuvering. The idea of matching the shape of the wing profile with the flight mode is the basis of the adaptive wing. In the 50s. To increase the lift of the wing at low flight speeds, it began to be used, in particular, to blow off the boundary layer by blowing air bleed from the engine onto the upper surfaces of the wing tips and flaps. In the 70s Short take-off and landing aircraft (STOL) began to be created with the so-called energy mechanization of the wing, based on the use of engine energy to increase lift by blowing the wing or flaps with the jet stream of the engines.
Fuselage serves to combine into one whole the various parts of the aircraft (wings, empennage, etc.), to accommodate the crew cabin, units and systems of on-board equipment, and also, depending on the type and design of the aircraft, passenger compartments and cargo compartments, engines , weapons and landing gear compartments, fuel tanks, etc. In the early stages of aircraft development, its wing was connected to the tail using an open truss or a box-shaped truss fuselage covered with fabric or rigid skin. Truss fuselages were replaced by so-called beam fuselages with various combinations of strength sets - longitudinal (spars, stringers) and transverse (frames) and “working” skin. This design made it possible to give the fuselage various well-streamlined shapes. For a long time, an open or protected by a front visor cockpit prevailed, and on heavy aircraft they were fitted into the contours of the fuselage. As flight speed increased, the cabins of light aircraft began to be covered with a streamlined canopy. Flights at high altitudes required the creation of sealed cabins (on combat and passenger airplanes) with the provision of air parameters in them necessary for normal human life. On modern aircraft, various forms of cross-section of the fuselage have become widespread - round, oval, in the form of the intersection of two circles, etc. On a fuselage with a cross-section close to rectangular and with a specially profiled bottom, it is possible to obtain some additional lifting force (load-bearing fuselage). . The area of the fuselage section of a light aircraft is determined by the dimensions of the crew cabin or the dimensions of the engines (when installed in the fuselage), and on heavy aircraft - by the dimensions of the passenger or cargo cabin, weapons compartments, etc. The creation in the second half of the 60s. Wide-body aircraft with a diameter of about 6 m made it possible to significantly increase payload and passenger capacity. The length of the fuselage is determined not only by the conditions for placing the transported load, fuel, and equipment, but also by the requirements related to the stability and controllability of the aircraft (ensuring the required position of the center of gravity and the distance from it to the tail). To reduce wave drag, the fuselages of supersonic aircraft have a large aspect ratio, a pointed nose, and sometimes in the area of interface with the wing the fuselage is “tucked in” (when viewed from above) in accordance with the so-called area rule. Most aircraft are made according to a single-fuselage design. Double-boom aircraft were built relatively rarely, and even less frequently were fuselage aircraft.
Plumage provides longitudinal and directional stability, balancing and controllability of the aircraft. Most of the aircraft created, especially subsonic ones, had a normal design, that is, with a tail unit, usually consisting of fixed and deflectable (control) surfaces: the stabilizer and elevator form (GO), and keel and rudder - (VO). According to the structural-power scheme, the tail is similar to the wing, and at high speed, the VO and GO, like the wing, are swept-shaped. On heavy subsonic airplanes, to facilitate balancing, the stabilizer is sometimes made adjustable, that is, with a variable installation angle in flight. At supersonic flight speeds, the effectiveness of the rudders decreases; therefore, on supersonic aircraft, the stabilizer and fin can be controlled, including all-moving ones (forward and horizontal without rudders). The most common type is single-fin tail, but aircraft with spaced-out wings are also created. The design of a V-shaped tail unit that performs the functions of GO and VO is known. A fairly large number of engines, especially supersonic ones, are made according to the “tailless” design (there is no GO). A small number of aircraft have been built according to the canard design (with a front cylinder), but it continues to attract attention, in particular, due to the advantage of using the positive lift force created by the front cylinder to balance the car.
Chassis serves to move the skid around the airfield (during taxiing, takeoff, and landing), as well as to soften shocks that occur during landing and movement of the skid. The most common type is a wheeled chassis, but on light skids in winter conditions a ski chassis is sometimes used. Attempts were made to create a tracked chassis, which turned out to be too heavy. The necessary seaworthiness and stability on the water of seaplanes are provided by floats or a fuselage boat. Chassis resistance can reach 40% of the frontal drag, so in the early 40s. To increase flight speed, retractable landing gear began to be widely used. Depending on the design of the fuselage, the landing gear is retracted into the wing, fuselage, and engine nacelles. Low-speed aircraft are sometimes built with fixed landing gear, which is lighter and simpler in design. To ensure a stable position of the vehicle on the ground, its chassis includes at least three supports. Previously, a tricycle landing gear with a low tail support was mainly used, but jet aircraft are equipped with a landing gear with a front landing gear, which ensures a safer landing at high speeds and stable movement of the aircraft during the takeoff and run. In addition, the horizontal position of the fuselage (with the front support) helps to reduce the impact of the engine jet stream on the airfield surface. On a number of aircraft, it is used with two main supports along the fuselage and auxiliary supports at the ends of the wing. One of the advantages of this design is the absence of nacelles on the wing for retracting the landing gear, which worsen the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing. On the M-4 heavy bomber, the front strut of the bicycle landing gear was “heavy” during takeoff, which increased the speed and shortened the takeoff run. The landing gear support usually includes a strut, liquid-gas or liquid, struts, retraction mechanisms and wheels. The wheels of the main supports, and sometimes the front supports, are equipped with brakes, which are used to reduce the length of the run after landing, as well as to hold the aircraft in place when the engines are running (before the takeoff roll, when testing the engines, etc.). To ensure steering, the front support has an orienting wheel. Control of the vehicle's movement on the ground at low speeds is ensured by separate braking of the wheels of the main supports, as well as by the creation of asymmetrical engine thrust. When this method is ineffective or impossible (bicycle chassis, single-engine layout combined with a small chassis track, etc.), the front support is controlled. Heavy passenger and transport aircraft are equipped with multi-legged and multi-wheeled chassis to reduce the loads and pressures on the airfield pavement. The search for new, in particular non-contact, take-off and landing devices (for example, hovercraft landing gear) is aimed at expanding the capabilities of landing aircraft.
Aircraft power plant.
Creates the necessary thrust over the entire range of operating conditions and turns on the engines ( cm. Aviation engine), propellers, air intakes, jet nozzles, fuel supply systems, lubrication, control and regulation, etc. Almost until the end of the 40s. The main type of engine for S. was an air- or liquid-cooled piston engine. Important stages in the development of power plants with piston engines are the creation of variable pitch propellers (effective in a wide range of flight conditions); increase in liter power due to an increase in the compression ratio, which became possible after a significant increase in the anti-knock properties of aviation gasoline; providing the required engine power at altitude by supercharging them using special superchargers. To reduce the aerodynamic drag of the power plant, the aim was to close the star-shaped air-cooled piston engines with annular profiling hoods, as well as to remove the radiators of the liquid-cooled piston engines into the wing or fuselage tunnels. The power of the aircraft piston engine was increased to 3160 kW, and the flight speed of aircraft with a piston engine was increased to 700-750 km/h. However, further growth in speed was hampered by a sharp increase in the aerodynamic drag of the aircraft and a decrease in the efficiency of the propeller due to the increasing influence of air compressibility and the associated increase in the required engine power, while the possibilities of reducing its weight and size had already been exhausted. This circumstance stimulated the development and introduction of lighter and more powerful gas turbine engines (turbojet engines and turboprop engines).
Turbojet engines have become widespread in combat aircraft, and turboprop engines and turbojet engines have become widespread in passenger and transport aircraft. Rocket engines (liquid rocket engines) are not widely used due to the short available flight duration (it is necessary to have not only an oxidizer on board, but also an oxidizer), although they were used in a number of experimental rockets, in which record flight speeds were achieved. Traction, economic and aviation gas turbine engines were continuously improved by increasing the parameters of the engine's operating process, using new materials, design solutions and technological processes. An increase in flight speeds up to high supersonic ones (M(() = 3) was achieved using turbojet engines equipped with an afterburner, which made it possible to significantly (by 50% or more) increase the engine thrust. In experimental aircraft, power plants consisting only of ramjet engines (starting from a ramjet engine), as well as combined installations (+ ramjet engine) Power plants with a ramjet engine provide further expansion of the speed range of the ramjet engine (). cm. Hypersonic aircraft). In subsonic passenger and transport aircraft, economical turbojet engines were used, first with a low bypass ratio, and later (in the 60-70s) with a high bypass ratio. The specific fuel consumption on a supersonic aircraft reaches 0.2 kg/(Nph) in afterburner flight modes; for subsonic aircraft in cruising flight modes it is increased to 0.22-0.3 kg/(kW h) for turboprop engines and 0. 07-0.058 kg/(N h) for turbojet bypass engines. The creation of highly loaded propellers that maintain high efficiency up to high flight speeds (M(() 0.8) forms the basis for the development of turbofan engines, which are 15-20% more economical than turbojet bypass engines. Passenger aircraft engines are equipped with thrust reversal devices on landing to reduce the run length and are low-noise ( cm. Noise standards). The number of engines in a power plant depends mainly on the purpose of the engine, its main parameters, and the requirements for flight characteristics. The total power (thrust) of the power plant, determined by the required starting power-to-weight ratio (thrust-to-weight ratio) of the aircraft, is selected based on the conditions of not exceeding the specified take-off run length, ensuring a climb in the event of one engine failure, achieving maximum flight speed at a given altitude, etc. Thrust-to-weight ratio of a modern supersonic fighter reaches 1.2, while for a subsonic passenger aircraft the S. is usually in the range of 0.22-0.35. There are various options for placing engines on the S. Piston engines were usually installed on the wing and in the forward part of the fuselage. The engines on turboprop aircraft are installed similarly. On jet aircraft, the layout solutions are more varied. On light combat aircraft, one or two turbojet engines are usually installed in the fuselage. On heavy jet aircraft, the practice was to place the engines in the root part of the wing, but the scheme of suspending the engines on pylons under the wing became more widespread. On a passenger aircraft, engines (2, 3, or 4) are often placed on the rear of the fuselage, and in the three-engine version, one engine is placed inside the fuselage, and it is placed in the root part of the fin. The advantages of such arrangements include reduced noise in the passenger cabin and increased aerodynamic quality due to a “clean” wing. Three-engine versions of passenger aircraft are also made according to a scheme with two engines on pylons under the wing and one in the rear fuselage. On some supersonic aircraft, the engine nacelles are located directly on the lower surface of the wing, and special profiling of the outer contours of the nacelles makes it possible to use a system of shock waves (increasing pressure) to obtain additional lift on the wing. Installation of engines on top of the wing is used in short takeoff and landing aircraft with airflow over the upper surface of the wing.
Aviation engines use liquid - gasoline in piston engines and the so-called (kerosene type) in gas turbine engines ( cm. Aviation fuel). Due to the depletion of natural oil reserves, synthetic fuels, cryogenic fuels (in 1988 the USSR created an experimental aircraft Tu-155, using liquefied gas as fuel), as well as aviation nuclear power plants, can be used. A number of lightweight experimental solar cells have been created that use the energy of solar panels ( cm. Solar plane), of which the most famous is “Solar” (USA); It carried the flight from Paris to London in 1981. Construction of demonstration aircraft with a muscular propeller drive continues ( cm. Muscle plane). In 1988, the flight range of a muscle plane reached about 120 km at a speed of over 30 km/h.
Aircraft equipment.
Ensures piloting, flight safety, and creation of the necessary conditions for the life of members. crew and passengers and performing tasks related to the purpose of the aircraft. Flight navigation, radio engineering and radar equipment are used for aircraft navigation. To increase flight safety, fire-fighting, emergency rescue, external lighting equipment, anti-icing and other systems are designed. The life support system includes air conditioning and cabin pressurization systems, oxygen equipment. The power supply for power supply systems and units is provided by electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic systems. The target equipment is determined by type C. This includes, for example, units for spraying chemicals on agricultural vehicles, household equipment for passenger vehicles, surveillance and sighting systems for combat vehicles, reconnaissance, anti-submarine, airborne transport, search and rescue equipment, and radar patrol equipment. and guidance, electronic warfare, etc. (instruments, indicators, alarms) provides the crew with the information necessary to carry out the flight mission, control the operation of the power plant and on-board equipment. In the early stages of development, aircraft were equipped with a small number of instruments that controlled the basic flight parameters (altitude, heading, roll, speed) and engine speed, and could fly under conditions of visual visibility of the horizon and ground references. The expansion of the practical use of satellites and the increase in flight range and altitude required the creation of on-board equipment that would allow long-term flights, day and night, in difficult meteorological and geographic conditions. In the first half of the 30s. Gyroscopic means were created (artificial horizon, gyro-semi-compass), which provided for flights in clouds, fog, and at night, and autopilots began to be used, freeing the pilot from the tedious work of maintaining a given flight mode on long routes. At the end of the 20s. Aircraft transceiver radio stations began to be introduced. In the 30s On-board and ground-based radio equipment (radio compasses, direction finders, radio beacons, radio markers) began to be used to determine the flight direction and location of the aircraft, as well as in the first instrument approach systems. During World War II, radars were used in combat aircraft, which were used for target detection and navigation. In the post-war years, the functionality of aircraft equipment was significantly expanded, and its accuracy was increased. Flight navigation equipment is created based on the use of a variety of means: combined systems for determining airspeed parameters, Doppler meters of ground speed and drift angle, heading systems with magnetic, gyroscopic and astronomical sensors, radio engineering systems for short-range and long-range navigation, high-precision inertial systems, radar sights to clarify the location of the S. and determine the meteorological situation, etc. More accurate instrumental (instrument) approach systems, and then automatic landing systems, were used. On-board digital computers are used to process information and automatically control the operation of various systems. In combat aircraft, airborne radar stations are widely used in surveillance and sighting systems for detecting air and ground targets and targeting guided missiles at them. For the same purposes, optical-electronic systems are used, including heat direction finders, laser locators, etc. The information content of display means has increased. The use of on-screen indicators and head-up indicators is increasing. The latter allow the pilot to see the necessary information projected in front of him, without being distracted from the view of the extra-cockpit space in critical flight modes. Expert crew assistance systems based on artificial intelligence and a voice control system were tested experimentally (in the late 80s). On modern airplanes, the layout of the flight deck, the selection of the optimal composition, and the location of information display equipment, control panels, etc. are made taking into account the requirements of aviation ergonomics.
Armament.
The armament of military weapons is intended to destroy manpower, air, ground, and sea (underwater and surface) targets and includes (depending on the weapon’s purpose) machine gun and cannon, bomber, mine, torpedo, and missile weapons. In this case, small arms and missiles can be offensive or serve for defense against enemy fighters (for example, on bombers, military transport aircraft). The formation of the main combat aircraft (fighters and bombers) dates back to the period of the First World War. Initially, conventional (army) machine guns were used. It was important to use a synchronizer, which allows firing through the plane of rotation of the propeller. Fighters were armed with fixed synchronized machine guns, and on bombers machine guns were mounted on rotating devices to organize all-round defense. The ancestor of bomber aviation was the aircraft "" (1913). Its bomb load reached 500 kg. During the period between the two world wars, special machine-gun and cannon weapons were created that met the requirements of aviation use (low weight and dimensions, high, low recoil, remote control of firing and reloading, etc.). A new type of weapon was created in the 30s. uncontrollable. The Second World War clearly demonstrated the great role of weaponry as a means of armed struggle. In the first half of the 50s. S. appeared, armed with guided missiles. The basis of modern missile armament are guided missiles of the air-to-air and air-to-surface classes with different firing ranges and various guidance methods. The launch range reaches 300 km for air-to-air missiles and tactical air-to-surface missiles ( cm. Aviation rocket).
In the early 80s. bombers began to be armed with strategic air-to-surface cruise missiles with a launch range of up to 2500 km. On light rockets, the rockets are suspended on external holders, while on heavy ones they can also be placed inside the fuselage (including on rotating drums).
Construction materials.
The main material for the manufacture of the frame of most of the first aircraft was wood; fabrics (for example, percale) were used as covering, and metal was used only to connect various components of the aircraft, in the chassis and in the engines. The first all-metal Ss were built in 1912-1915. In the early 20s. became widespread, which for many years became the main structural material in aircraft construction, due to the combination of high strength and low weight properties that are important for aircraft. Stronger steels were used in heavily loaded structural elements (for example, in the chassis). For a long time (until the Second World War), structures of mixed (wooden and metal) construction were also created. With increasing flight speed, the requirements for structural materials have increased due to the increased (due to aerodynamic heating) operating temperature of structural elements. It is close to the air stagnation temperature, which depends on the flight speed and is determined by the relation
T0 T(1 + 0.2M(()2),
where T is the air temperature. When flying in the lower stratosphere (T = 216.65 K), the numbers M(() = 1, M(() = 2 and M(() = 3) will correspond to the air flow stagnation temperature values of 260, 390, 607 K (or - 13, 117, 334(-)С). Aluminum alloys predominate in the design of aircraft with maximum flight speeds corresponding to numbers M(() = 2-2.2). At higher speeds, special steels are also beginning to be used. Mastering hypersonic flight speeds requires the use of heat-resistant alloys, “hot”, heat-protected or cooled structures (for example, with the help of liquid hydrogen fuel, which has a large cooling resource). Since the 70s, they have been used in auxiliary structures with high specific strength and rigidity. These power elements will significantly increase the weight perfection of the aircraft's design. In the 80s, a number of lightweight aircraft were created, almost entirely made of composite materials, including the record-breaking aircraft, which in 1986 made a non-stop flight around the world without refueling. in flight.
Airplane control.
Many schemes and configurations of the aircraft were tested before it became stable and well-controllable in flight. The aircraft's stability and controllability in a wide range of operating conditions is ensured by an appropriate choice of geometric parameters of the wing, tail, controls and its alignment, as well as control automation. To maintain a given flight mode and change the aircraft's trajectory, control parts (rudders) are used, which in the traditional case include an elevator, a rudder, and oppositely deflected ones ( cm. also governing bodies). Control is carried out by changing aerodynamic forces and moments when these surfaces deflect. To deflect the control surfaces, it moves the control handle (or steering wheel) and pedals installed in the cockpit. Using the control stick, the elevator (longitudinal control) and ailerons (lateral control) are deflected, and the rudder (directional control) is deflected using the pedals. connected to the steering wheels by flexible (cable) or rigid control wiring. On many types of aircraft, control levers are equipped at the workstations of two crew members. To reduce the forces on the control levers necessary to deflect the rudders, various types of compensation for the hinge moment occurring on them are used. In steady-state flight conditions, it may be necessary to deflect the rudders to balance C. In this case, auxiliary control surfaces - trimmers - are used to compensate for the hinge moment. At large hinge moments (on heavy or supersonic aircraft), hydraulic steering actuators are used to deflect the rudders. In the 70s The so-called (EDSU) has found application. On the S. with EMDS, there is no mechanical control wiring (or is backup), and the transmission of signals from the command levers to the rudder deflection actuators is carried out via electrical communications. EMDS has a smaller mass and allows increasing reliability by redundant communication lines. Fly-by-wire systems are also used in new types of control systems based on the use of sensitive sensors, computer technology and high-speed drives. These include systems that make it possible to control a statically unstable aircraft (such aerodynamic configurations provide benefits in aerodynamic and weight characteristics), as well as systems designed to reduce the loads acting on the aircraft during maneuvering or flight in a turbulent atmosphere, to suppress flutter and etc. ( cm. Active control systems). New control systems open up the possibility of implementing unusual forms of aircraft movement in the vertical and horizontal planes due to the direct control of lifting and lateral forces (without transient processes associated with a preliminary change in the angular position of the aircraft during traditional control), which increases control speed and piloting accuracy. In the 80s experimental remote control systems using fiber-optic communication channels have been created.
Aircraft operation.
To prepare aircraft for flight and take off and land, specially equipped airfields are needed. Depending on the take-off weight, type of landing gear, and takeoff and landing characteristics, the aircraft can be operated from airfields with natural or artificial surfaces and with different runway lengths. Unpaved airfields are used mainly for air carriers of local air lines, agricultural air carriers, forward-based combat aircraft (fighters, attack aircraft, etc.), as well as military transport and cargo air carriers with all-terrain chassis (with low specific gravity). load on the ground) and powerful wing mechanization. Some types of aircraft (heavy bombers, long-haul passenger aircraft, etc.) require concrete airfields, and the required runway length can reach 3000-4500 m. Preparing aircraft for flight includes checking the serviceability of systems and equipment, refueling, aircraft loading, suspension of bomber and missile weapons, etc. Passenger aircraft flights are controlled by ground air traffic control services and are carried out along specially established air routes with the necessary separation. Many types of aircraft are capable of autonomous flight. The crew of the aircraft is diverse in terms of the number of members and the functions of its members and is determined by the type C. In addition to one or two pilots, it may include a navigator, flight engineer, flight radio operator, gunners and on-board equipment operators, flight attendants (on passenger aircraft). The largest number of crew members are S. , equipped with special radio-electronic equipment (up to 10-12 people on anti-submarine navigation systems, up to 14-17 people on long-range radar detection systems). The crews of military aircraft are provided with the possibility of emergency escape from the aircraft using a parachute or by ejection. On some types of aircraft, to protect crew members from the effects of adverse flight factors, protective equipment is used, for example, altitude-compensating and anti-g suits, etc. ( cm. High altitude equipment). is ensured by a complex of various measures, including: proper standardization of the strength and reliability of the structure of the system and its components; equipping the aircraft with special systems and equipment that increase the reliability of its flight operation; redundancy of vital systems; carrying out the necessary laboratory and bench tests of systems and assemblies, including tests of full-scale structures for strength and fatigue; conducting flight tests to verify the aircraft’s compliance with technical requirements and airworthiness standards; careful technical control during the production process; special selection and high level of professional training of flight personnel; an extensive network of ground air traffic control services; systematically carrying out preventive (routine) work during operation with in-depth monitoring of the technical condition of engines, systems and units, replacing them in connection with the exhaustion of the established resource, etc.- noun, m., used. often Morphology: (no) what? airplane, why? airplane, (I see) what? airplane, what? by plane, about what? about the plane; pl. What? airplanes, (no) what? airplanes, why? airplanes, (I see) what? airplanes, what? airplanes, about what? about airplanes... ... Dmitriev's Explanatory Dictionary

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