Commander's Aleuts. History, religion and economic activity of the Aleuts. Traditions and customs

Aleuts (self-name - unangan / unangan) - indigenous people Aleutian Islands. Most live in the USA (Alaska), some in Russia (Kamchatka Territory).

The name "Aleut" is of Russian origin. It was given after the discovery of the Aleutian Islands, and was first found in documents in 1747. The etymology of the ethnonym is controversial. G. A. Menovshchikov explains it from the Aleut word allitkhukh (team, community). I. S. Vdovin believed that the ethnonym was of Chukchi-Koryak origin, from the word alyav-vyte (those with a rim on their head). A distinctive feature of the Aleuts in the past was indeed their unusual wooden headdresses. The most convincing explanation seems to be the origin of this name from the Chukchi “aliat” (island), “aliut” (islanders).

In addition to the common name Unangan, the inhabitants of the islands also had local names: the inhabitants of the Near Islands were called sasignan, the Rat Islands were called kagan, the Four Hills were called akagai (that is, local ones), the inhabitants of the Krenitsiya Islands and parts of Unalaska were called kigigan (northeastern), the inhabitants of the islands from Ungi to Unimak (not including him) - Kagan Tayagangin (Eastern people), residents of Unimaka Island - Animgin, Umnaka Island and part of Unalaski Island - Kaelyangin, Athi Island - Nigagin.

The Eskimos, the closest neighbors of the Aleuts, call them Alakshak.

In Russia they live on Commander Islands, which make up the Aleutian region of the Kamchatka Territory. The number of Aleuts in Russia is 482 people (according to the 2010 census), of which 401 people are in the region, in the village of Nikolskoye, in the only locality on Bering Island and the area as a whole (since the 1970s).

The Aleuts occupy a special position within the Arctic race; they have an admixture of southern elements of the Pacific branch of the Mongoloids. A wide, flat face with prominent cheekbones and slanted eyes rather suggests the kinship of this tribe with the Mongolian than with the American race.

For a long time, there were two hypotheses of their origin. According to one, the Aleuts came from the northeast Asian coast, according to the other, from Alaska. Steller spoke out for the Asian origin of the Aleuts. As a basis, he pointed out the similarity that, in his opinion, Aleutian hats made of tree bark have with the hats of the Kamchadals and Koryaks. Objecting to this opinion, the famous American explorer of Alaska V. Doll considered it incredible for the Aleuts to move from Asia to the islands with their means of transportation. Jochelson also speaks out for the American origin of the Aleuts, arguing for the similarity of the Aleut culture with the culture Northwestern Indians: “This includes the use of bushings (as decorations), face painting and some other decoration techniques. In general, we can say that the characteristics of the material and spiritual culture, as well as the physical makeup of the Aleuts, indicate their close connection with the inhabitants of America, and not Asia.” Hrdlicka believed that by the beginning of our era, a people appeared on the Aleutian Islands, which the author calls pre-Aleuts. They were anthropologically different from the Aleuts, Eskimos and Konyags (Kodiaks) and were similar to the Sioux Indians. In the XIII-XIV centuries. they were replaced by Mongoloids who came here from the east, from America, perhaps some branch of the Tungus family of peoples, who crossed the Bering Strait to America. Thus, according to Hrdlicka, the movement of the ancestors of modern Aleuts took place not along the Aleutian ridge, but from America, where both the proto-Aleuts and the newcomers of the 13th-14th centuries. came through the Bering Strait region.

Research proves that the formation of the anthropological type, language and culture took place 6000 - 4600 years ago. There is an assumption that the Aleuts made up the southern group of Eskimos; according to other sources, they became an independent ethnic group quite a long time ago.

The history of the study of the Aleuts begins with the discovery of the Aleutian Islands in 1741 by the Great Northern (Second Kamchatka) expedition (1733-1743). Russian sailors, explorers, and industrialists collected data about the culture of the people.

Since 1799, the Aleutian Islands and the adjacent part of Alaska were controlled by the Russian-American Company. To develop the uninhabited Commander Islands, the company resettled there from these islands some of the Aleuts, the ancestors of the present ones. Subsequently, the population of the Commander Islands was replenished not only by Aleuts, but also by Creoles (descendants of Europeans and Aleuts) and Russian industrialists from Atka and California who married Aleuts. Bering Island was inhabited mainly by people from Atka; in 1827 there were already 110 people. In 1900, 279 Aleuts lived on Bering Island, and 253 people from Attu lived on Medny Island. Nowadays, approximately 550 Aleuts live on the Commanders. The main goal of the Russian-American Company was to preserve their traditional economy as a reliable source of profits. Officials appointed clerks and kayakers to organize fishing in remote islands. The official status of the Aleuts was approaching the status of foreigners of the Russian Empire; they paid yasak to the treasury, and from 1821 they were recognized as Russian subjects. In 1867, the Aleutian Islands, along with Alaska, were sold to the United States. In Russia, the Aleuts remained only on the Commanders. From 1891 to 1917, the islands were rented by various commercial and industrial companies.

After the end of the civil war Far East The restoration of the destroyed economy on the islands, the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing and sea hunting began. The process of revival of the Aleuts included the creation of an animal farm in 1925, the allocation of the Commander Islands to the Aleutian Islands in 1928 national region, participation of the people in management, training of national intelligentsia and technical specialists. Since 1935, population growth began. At the same time, the process of dispersal of the Aleuts and their settlement on the mainland was developing.

Since 1969, Aleuts have mainly lived in the village of Nikolskoye. In terms of lifestyle and social structure they do not differ from the visiting population. The number of interethnic marriages has increased.

Traditional beliefs are characterized by animism. The spirits of ancestors were revered, whose images made of stone, bone, wood and bird skins were passed down as personal amulets. Patron spirits were represented by wooden masks, which were worn during ritual dances. Shamanism was widespread among the Aleuts, in the mythology of which there were ideas about different worlds. The shaman's costume, like that of some peoples of Siberia, symbolized a bird. In addition to shamanism, there was also hunting magic, which consisted of rituals for summoning animals, special hunting prohibitions, and wearing amulets to protect the owner.

At the end of the 18th century, the Aleuts, having experienced the strong influence of Russian culture, were converted to Orthodoxy. Schooling and bilingualism spread. Religious books appeared, translated into the Aleut language. It is characteristic that some of the aborigines became missionaries. The Aleuts still remain staunch adherents of Orthodoxy; religious rituals are performed in Russian and Aleut languages. One of the Aleuts - Peter Aleut - is revered by the Orthodox Church as a martyr. God in Aleutian sounds like Agugum.

The basis of the economy was hunting, fishing and poultry. They also collected marine invertebrates: sea urchins, clams, limpets and mussels. Hunting for sea animals from a kayak and catching seals on land. In winter they hunted for seals from the shore. Sea beaver (sea otter) were caught in the open sea using a harpoon (a throwing spear on a long rope), sea lions and walruses were caught in rookeries, seals were lured ashore with a decoy - an inflated seal skin, imitating the scream of a female, whales were hunted using a spear, the tip of which smeared with poison aconite. After 2-3 days, the sea washed the animal’s carcass ashore. Harpoons and spears were thrown using spear throwers - wooden planks 50-70 cm long with a longitudinal groove, finger grooves at one end and a bone stop at the other.

The Aleuts fished using long fishing rods made from seaweed. Hooks were attached to these strong and durable devices. Fishing rods could be used for fishing sea fish, such as halibut and cod. River fish were caught using bag-like nets made from whale tendons.

They hunted birds using throwing spears (shatin) and a throwing projectile (bola) - a bunch of belts with stone or bone weights at the ends. Having untwisted, the bola was thrown into the flock and the bird, entangled in the straps, became the prey of the hunter. They were also caught at bird markets with a large net on a long pole (chirucha), as well as with nets.

An important role in sea hunting was played by the kayak - a flat-bottomed boat with a wooden frame, covered with sea lion or seal skin, and the kayak - a closed leather boat with a wooden frame and a hatch where the hunter sat (a prototype of a sports kayak). It was controlled with a two-bladed oar. Before the arrival of the Russians, the weapons of the Aleuts were light darts with bone tips, bows, stone or bone knives.

The villages were located on the sea coast, often at the mouths of rivers and consisted of two to four large semi-dugouts (ulyagams). Russian travelers called them earthen yurts from the waste forest, which were completely devoid of a hearth. They chose tall ones for them, open spaces, so that it is convenient to observe sea animals and the approach of enemies. Semi-dugouts were built from driftwood (trees nailed to the shore), covered with dry grass, skins and turf. They left several quadrangular holes in the roof for entry and climbed up there along a log with notches. The dwelling accommodated from 10 to 40 families. Inside, bunks were built along the walls. Each family lived on its own part of the bunks, separated from each other by pillars and curtains. Utensils were stored under the bunks. In the summer they moved to separate light buildings. In the 19th century, the traditional half-dugout was modified: the walls and roof, made of poles and boards, were covered with turf. At the top there was a hatch for lighting, and on the side there was an exit through a small vestibule. Homes were illuminated with grease lamps, and sometimes stoves were installed. Along with traditional utensils, they used imported factory-made utensils.

Traditional clothing was a parka - a long, blind (without a slit in the front) clothing made of fur seal, sea otter, and bird skins. On top of it they put on a kamleika - a thick, waterproof garment made from the intestines of sea animals with sleeves, a closed collar and a hood (a prototype of a European windbreaker). The edges of the hood and sleeves were tightened with laces. Parkas and kamleikas were decorated with embroidered stripes and fringes. Traditional fishing jackets with hoods made of sea lion intestines and throats, and trousers made of seal skin have been preserved. Men's and women's clothing were completely identical in cut and decoration. Later appeared new type clothes - brodni - trousers made of sea lion throats, to which were sewn waterproof torbas - soft boots made of the skin of sea animals. In everyday life they wore European clothes.

Hunting headdresses were wooden hats of a conical shape (for the leaders - toyons) or without a top, with a very elongated front part (for simple hunters), richly decorated with polychrome painting, carved bone, feathers, and sea lion mustaches. They were worn on the hood of the kamleika. The hats were hollowed out from a whole piece of wood, then steamed and, having been given the desired shape, painted in bright colors with intricate patterns. The sides and back were decorated with carved walrus tusk plates, engraved with geometric patterns, into which paint was rubbed. A bone figurine of a bird or animal was attached to the top of the back plate, which also served as the top of the hat. 50-centimeter sea lion whiskers were inserted into the side holes of the plate, the number of which depended on the hunting ability of the owner. These headdresses were worn only by men. Hats served as festive and ritual headdresses various shapes made of leather and bird skins with decorations, leather headbands with patterned seams.

The traditional food of the Aleuts was yukola.

The Aleuts observed social stratification in the presence of a tribal system. The chief (toyon or tukuks) led the tribe. There were also kalgi - slaves from prisoners of war.

Noble people were buried along with slaves in caves; a painted pillar was placed at the entrance, or the bodies of the deceased were hung in baskets between two pillars. The dead were embalmed, then eaten [source not specified 92 days], and funeral pyres were made from their bones.

Self-name: Aleut, Unangan.

The indigenous population of the Aleutian Islands, most of them live in the USA - the southwest of the Alaska Peninsula (up to the Ugashik River in the north) and some small islands adjacent to it (about 2 thousand people) and in Russia (482 people) on the Commander Islands ( Bering Islands, Medny), where he has lived since the beginning of the 19th century, in Kamchatka, etc.

The Aleut language is of the Eskimo-Aleut family. Dialects: Unalaskinsky (eastern), Atkinsky (central), Attuansky (western). Native language Few retained them and switched to English and Russian.

Ethnogenesis and ethnic history: the settlement of the main part of their territory by the ancestors of the Aleuts occurred during the migration of peoples from Asia to America 10-12 thousand years ago. The name "Aleuts" was given by the Russians after their discovery of the Aleutian Islands and first appears in documents from 1747. Since 1799, the territory of the Aleuts was controlled by the Russian-American Company, which settled the uninhabited Commander and Pribilof Islands with Aleuts. The Aleuts were converted to Orthodoxy and were strongly influenced by Russian culture. In 1867, the Aleutian Islands and Alaska were sold to the United States.

The main traditional occupations of the Aleuts before contact with Europeans were hunting sea animals (seals, sea lions, sea otters, etc.) and fishing. Gathering was of secondary importance. They made hunting and fishing tools, weapons from stone, bone, wood, leather-covered boats - multi-oar kayaks, one-, two-, three-hatch kayaks.

In Russia, the Commander Islands were allocated (1928) to the Aleutian national region (since 1932 in the Kamchatka region), liquidated in the mid-1930s, now restored. Along with traditional ones, new sectors of the economy are developing: fur farming (mink), animal husbandry, and gardening.

By the middle of the 18th century, property and social differentiation and military organization existed.

Aleut villages usually consisted of 2-4 large (from 10 to 40 families) semi-dugouts.

The traditional clothing of the Aleuts (men's and women's) is the parka - long, closed clothing made of fur from seals, sea otters, and bird skins. A kamleika was worn over the top - clothing made from the intestines of sea animals with sleeves, a closed collar and a hood. Shoes - torbasa (boots made from the skins of sea animals). Hunters wore wooden hats - conical or open-topped, with an elongated large visor, decorated with carved bone, sea lion whiskers, feathers, etc.

An important role in the sea hunting of the Aleuts was played by the kayak - a flat-bottomed boat with a wooden frame, covered with sea lion or seal skin, and the kayak - a closed leather boat with a wooden frame and a hatch where the hunter sat (a prototype of a sports kayak). It was controlled with a two-bladed oar. Before the arrival of the Russians, the weapons of the Aleuts were light darts with bone tips, bows, stone or bone knives

The main traditional food is the meat of sea animals and poultry, fish (mostly raw), marine invertebrates, algae, berries, and roots.

Traditional beliefs are characterized by belief in spirits, and shamanism existed.

R.G. Lyapunova

According to the 2010 Census, the number of Aleuts living in Russia is 482 people.

The entire history of America is in one way or another connected with the indigenous peoples who inhabited the American continent before Europeans got there.

As a result of numerous researches by archaeologists, it became known that the first people appeared on the American continent 25-29 thousand years ago.

And anthropologists who conducted research in this area believe that in North America at that time there lived people of the Mongoloid type, immigrants from Asia.

This is confirmed by the peculiarities of certain blood groups, the structure of the skeleton, the shape of the teeth and genetic characteristics, thanks to which people of this type, men do not go bald in old age, and women do not turn gray.

The first American people were strong and resilient. In these harsh lands they were able to create conditions for themselves under which they were able not only to survive, but also to multiply, eventually populating almost the entire continent. They built houses, made clothes, created tools for hunting and labor, hunted animals, birds and sea animals, and grew edible plants.

Over the centuries, due to the specific conditions where individual tribes lived; three main large groups stood out: the Eskimos, who occupied northern regions, Aleuts who lived on the coast and islands and Indians who settled central areas North America. In turn, as their numbers grew, these groups split into separate tribes, many of which survive to this day. They formed their own languages, customs and traditions.

In that small review we will try to sanctify the basic customs of the indigenous peoples far north America.

American Eskimos and now live in the American Arctic, which extends from to the Bering Strait. Eskimos have a peculiar appearance: short stature, yellow skin, narrow eyes, black, coarse straight hair. The most common languages spoken by Eskimos are Yupik, Inupiaq and Inuktikut. For many years, the main industry of the Eskimos was hunting whales, walruses, and seals. IN summer time Eskimos also hunt waterfowl. Women harvest sorrel, berries and various mosses. On their small boats, kayaks and umiaks, using an ordinary harpoon, brave Eskimo hunters went out into the open sea, killed these huge animals and towed them to the shore, where then the whole tribe cut up the whale carcass and stored its meat and fat for the entire long Arctic winter.

The traditional dwelling of the Eskimos, the yaranga, is a structure made of poles covered with skins or lined with bark. For the winter, the Eskimos built more insulated dwellings, the so-called igloos - dome-shaped buildings, always made of skins, but insulated on the outside with snow or ice blocks.

Eskimo clothing is also adapted to the cold climate of the north. Summer clothing has one layer of fur, winter clothing has two layers, the inner layer with the fur inward, the top layer with the fur outward. The usual outfit is a short deerskin jacket with a hood.

In addition to hunting, Eskimos are now mainly engaged in reindeer herding.

The Eskimos have a rare craft - walrus tusk carving. Their amazing crafts and all kinds of sculptures of people and animals are known all over the world. Eskimos wear figurines representing Eskimo spirits as talismans.

Aleuts are an island people living on the islands of the Aleutian archipelago. It is practically a disappearing nation. Now there are not much more than 4 thousand of them. Although in the middle of the 18th century their number was about 15 thousand.

Near the islands of the Aleutian archipelago, the sea practically does not freeze, and therefore for many years the Aleuts had no particular problems obtaining food for themselves. They hunted seals, fur seals, sea otters, dolphins, ducks, and geese. At the mouths of small rivers, they caught salmon, halibut, and cod. There is an abundance of fish and birds in these places.

Uniting in groups of 15-20 people, they sometimes went out to hunt whales. Thanks to the small boats they invented, kayaks, made in the form of a wooden frame, fastened with whalebone and covered with the skin of sea lions, they boldly went to sea even in strong waves. The whale was hunted using a harpoon, the tip of which was smeared with aconite poison. After a successful cast, a couple of days later the dead whale was thrown ashore by the waves. And the Aleuts began cutting it up, preparing meat and fat for future use. They also used bows and arrows, and later guns.

A leather kayak boat is a true art of Aleut engineering. The stem, forked vertically, cuts through the water when sliding; side wave, protecting the kayak from damage, and the keel bar allows the kayak hull to bend in the waves. Such boats are still used today. The rower, sitting in the kayak, puts on a wide belt, the upper edge of which is tightened on the chest, and the other is over the hatch of the kayak and water cannot get inside, even if the boat capsizes. It will not sink in any strong wave and can be easily returned to its original position.

The traditional dwelling of the Aleuts is ulyagam. This is a large half-dugout; built on a dry, high place at the mouth of the river. Typically, such a dwelling accommodated from 10 to 40 families. Along the walls in such a room, bunks were built, which were divided by partitions or curtains into sections for each individual family. A stove was installed in the middle. Lighting was provided by fat lamps. They descended into the dwelling along a log with notches.

The traditional clothing of the Aleuts consisted of a long, closed, no-slit shirt called a parka. It was made from the fur of fur seals or sea otters. Outerwear - kamleika - was made waterproof with a hood; usually the intestines of sea animals were used for this. Everyone wore sealskin pants. Both parkas and kamleikas were always decorated with embroidery and fringe. There was practically no difference between men's and women's clothing. Only women's clothing was more decorated. Torbasa, soft boots made from the skin of sea animals, were used as footwear. After Russian sailors began to explore these places, the Aleuts began to wear Russian clothes in everyday life.

And although at the present time there are so few Aleuts left on earth, they jealously cherish their ancient customs and observe ancient traditions their ancestors.

Story studying Aleuts begins with the discovery of the Aleutian Islands in 1741 by the Great Northern (Second Kamchatka) expedition (1733-1743). Russian sailors, explorers, and industrialists collected data about the culture of the people. For a long time, there were two hypotheses of their origin. According to one, the Aleuts came from the northeast Asian coast, according to the other, from Alaska. Research proves that the formation of the anthropological type, language and culture took place 6000 - 4600 years ago. There is an assumption that the Aleuts made up the southern group of Eskimos; according to other sources, they became an independent ethnic group quite a long time ago.

Since 1799, the Aleutian Islands and the adjacent part of Alaska were controlled by the Russian-American Company. To develop the uninhabited Commander Islands, the company resettled there from these islands some of the Aleuts, the ancestors of the present ones. Subsequently, the population of the Commander Islands was replenished not only by Aleuts, but also by Creoles (descendants of Europeans and Aleuts) and Russian industrialists from Atka and California who married Aleuts.

Bering Island was inhabited mainly by people from Atka; in 1827 there were already 110 people. In 1900, 279 Aleuts lived on Bering Island, and 253 people from Atau lived on Medny Island. Nowadays there are 550 Aleuts living on the Commanders. The main goal of the Russian-American Company was to preserve their traditional economy as a reliable source of profits. Officials appointed clerks and kayakers to organize fishing on the remote islands.

The official status of the Aleuts approached the status of foreigners of the Russian Empire: they paid yasak to the treasury, and from 1821 they were recognized as Russian subjects. In 1867, the Aleutian Islands, along with Alaska, were sold to the United States. In Russia, the Aleuts remained only on the Commanders. From 1891 to 1917, the islands were rented by various commercial and industrial companies.

After the end of the civil war in the Far East, the restoration of the destroyed economy on the islands began, the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing and sea hunting. The process of revival of the Aleuts included the creation of an animal farm in 1925, the allocation of the Commander Islands to the Aleutian national region in 1928, the participation of the people in management, the training of national intelligentsia and technical specialists. Since 1935, population growth began. At the same time, the process of dispersal of the Aleuts and their settlement on the mainland was developing. Since 1969, Aleuts have mainly lived in the village of Nikolskoye. In terms of lifestyle and social structure they do not differ from the visiting population. The number of interethnic marriages has increased.

Religion of the Aleuts.
Traditional beliefs are characterized by animism (from the Latin anima, animus - soul, spirit) - ideas about the soul as a vital force and the existence of good and evil spirits and their influence on human life. The spirits of ancestors were revered, whose images made of stone, bone, wood and bird skins were passed down as personal amulets. Patron spirits were represented by wooden masks, which were worn during ritual dances. Shamanism was widespread among the Aleuts, in whose mythology there were ideas about different worlds. The shaman's costume, like that of some peoples of Siberia, symbolized a bird. In addition to shamanism, there was also hunting magic (from the Greek mageia - witchcraft, sorcery), which consisted of rituals of summoning the beast, special hunting prohibitions and the wearing of amulets that protect the owner.

Economic activity of the Aleuts.

The peculiarities of life of the Commander Aleuts were determined by the isolation of the islands. Until 1867, their population worked for the Russian-American Company: they procured furs, meat and fat from sea animals, preserving their traditional culture. The main place was occupied by hunting sea animals from kayaks and catching seals on land.

Fishing began at the end of April. From spring to autumn they fished. In mid-July, they hunted birds using throwing spears (shatin) and a throwing projectile (bola) - a bunch of belts with stone or bone weights at the ends. Having untwisted, the bola was thrown into the flock and the bird, entangled in the straps, became the prey of the hunter. They were also caught at bird markets with a large net on a long pole (chirucha), as well as with nets. In winter they hunted for seals from the shore. Sea beaver (sea otter) were caught in the open sea using a harpoon (a throwing spear on a long rope), sea lions and walruses were caught in rookeries, seals were lured ashore with a decoy - an inflated seal skin, imitating the cry of a female, whales were hunted using a spear, the tip of which smeared with poison aconite. After 2-3 days, the sea washed the animal’s carcass ashore. Harpoons and spears were thrown using spear throwers - wooden planks 50-70 cm long with a longitudinal groove, finger grooves at one end and a bone stop at the other. Bows, arrows and guns were also known.

ALEUTS - (self-name - Unangai), people, indigenous population of the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula (USA) and the Commander Islands ( Russian Federation, 644 people). The Aleut language is of the Eskimo-Aleut family of languages. Believers are mostly Orthodox.

Settlement

They live on the Aleutian Islands, the north of the Alaska Peninsula and its neighboring islands (8 thousand people). On the Commander Islands, according to the 2002 population census, there are 592 people.

The number of Aleuts in the middle of the 18th century. - 12–15 thousand people. In the 1980s 1815 people lived on the Aleutian Islands, incl. in Unalaska - 178, Sand Point - 360, King Cove - 283, village. Saint George - 163, Saint Paul - 450 people. In Alaska, in Anchorage - 1512 people, in Kodiak - 573 people.

History of the people

According to anthropological characteristics, the Aleuts, together with the Eskimos, are classified as the Arctic type of the Pacific branch of the large Mongoloid race. The language belongs to the Eskimo-Aleut family, presumably separated 3-4 thousand years ago. IN AND. Jochelson considered it one of the archaic dialects of the Eskimo language. The dialects of the Aleut language are eastern, or Unalaska (Alaska Peninsula, Unalaska, Umnak, Pribilova islands), western, or Atta (Attu, Medny islands) and the closely related Atka subdialect (Atka and Bering islands). The first grammar of the Aleut language was compiled by I.E. Veniaminov at the beginning XIX century based on the Cyrillic alphabet. Since the 1970s writing is in Latin (based on eastern and western dialects); in schools, education is conducted in the native and English languages. The name “Aleut” was given by the Russians and was first found in documents of 1747. There are a number of versions about the origin of the ethnonym “Aleut”: according to the similarity of the islanders discovered by Russian Siberian travelers with the Teleuts, or Eleuts, who lived in the Tomsk province (18th century); by the name “alant”, which the Russians in Kamchatka gave to every nameless cliff in the sea (K.T. Khlebnikov, 1830–1840); according to I.E.'s guess Veniaminov (1840), upon seeing the Russians, the islanders asked each other: “alik-uaya” (abbreviated as aliuaya) - “what is this?” Without being able to find out the present time. named after the aborigines, the Russians began to call them Aliuts (then Aleuts); according to G.A. Menovshchikov, the ethnonym arose from the Chukchi allitkhukh (detachment, army, community); according to L.S. Berg (1935) - from the Chukchi alyat - island, aliut - islanders. The self-name of the Aleut is Unangan (eastern dialect) or Unangas (western dialect). There were also local names for the inhabitants of various islands: sasignan, saskinan (Near Islands), kagun (Rat Islands), akugun (Four Hill Islands), kigigun (Krenitsyna and Unalaska), kagan tayagungin (Shumagina, Alaska Peninsula), unimgin (Unimak), kaulyangin, kagulingin (Umnak, Unalaska), nigugin, niyagungin (Atka), namigun, negbo (Andrean Islands). The history of the study of the Aleuts begins with the discovery of the Aleutian Islands in 1741 by the Great Northern (Second Kamchatka) expedition (1733–1743). Russian researchers, industrialists, and missionaries collected data about the culture of the Aleuts. Particularly thorough were the studies of G.A. Sarycheva, I.E. Veniaminova, V.I. Yochelson. The latter conducted archaeological excavations in the Aleutian Islands in 1909–1910. From the end XIX century the study of the Aleuts became increasingly concentrated on the problem of their origin.

For a long time there were 2 hypotheses. According to one (Steller, Veniaminov, Quimby, Collins, de Laguna, Heizer, Kozyreva), the Aleuts came from the northeast of the Asian coast. According to another (Doll, Jochelson, Hrdlicka, Spaulding, Benk) - from Alaska. Research by G.F. Debetsa, M.G. Levin, V. Laughlin, N.N. Dikova, R.S. Vasilievsky prove that the formation of the anthropological type, language and culture of the Aleuts took place in their modern territories 6000–4600 BC. According to one point of view (Quimby), the Aleuts constituted the southern group of Eskimos; according to others (Doll, Jochelson, Tokareva, Hrdlicka, Bergsland, Laughlin), the Aleuts became an independent ethnic group quite a long time ago. Judging by the common, very rare N blood group among Eskimos and Indians, there are deep ethnogenetic roots of the ancestors of the Eskimo-Soaleuts and American Indians. K ser. XVIII century the population of each island or group of islands was a territorial entity with its own name and dialect.

Farm

The type of traditional Aleut economy has been determined natural conditions islands. The Bering Sea is rich in pinnipeds and whales. The abundance of fish in the seas was supplemented by the seasonal migration of red fish to island rivers for spawning. Many rocky islands with bird colonies provided opportunities for hunting birds and eggs. The tidal zone served as a gathering place for shellfish, seaweed, etc. The collection of berries, roots and herbs was of secondary importance. Meat and fish were eaten raw, dried or boiled. They mainly stored dried fish and whale oil for future use (it was kept in bladders from the stomachs of sea animals). The hunt began at the end of April. From May to autumn, fish going to spawn were caught. In mid-July we hunted birds. In winter they hunted for seals from the shore. The sea beaver (otter) was hunted on the open sea using a light, fixed harpoon (beaver arrow). When hunting sea lions and seals, they used a heavy, fixed harpoon, which was thrown without the help of a throwing board. Rotary harpoons were used when hunting bearded seals and others. Steller sea lions were killed in rookeries, driving them away from the water with sticks (dregalki) and spears. The seal was lured ashore with a decoy - an inflated seal skin, imitating the cry of a female. Whales were hunted using a spear, the tip of which was smeared with poison. After 2–3 days, the dead animal was thrown ashore. Birds were caught using Shatin and Metat throwing spears. bola projectile - a bunch of belts with stone or bone weights at the ends, which were thrown, giving it a rotational movement, into a flock of birds. At the same time, the bird became entangled in the straps. Harpoons and spears were thrown using spear throwers - wooden planks 50–70 cm long with a longitudinal groove, finger grooves at one end and a bone stop at the other. Bows and arrows were also known. The fish were caught by fishing, during spawning they were beaten with spears or caught with nets, having previously built a dam on the river. An important role in sea hunting was played by the canoe - a frame boat made of sea lion or seal skin. Sitting in a round hole in waterproof clothing, the hunter pulled its edges tightly around his belt. To insure against an accident, bladders made of inflated seal skins or sea lion stomachs were tied to the canoe. With the penetration of firearms, the spread of double hatch kayaks; During shooting, the second rower had to maintain balance. Multi-oared open kayaks were used to transport children and women, cargo, and also on military campaigns. Men were engaged in the production of weapons, tools, stone and wooden utensils. Stone was used to make knives, axes attached to wooden handles, arrow and spear tips, vessels for cooking, fat lamps for lighting and heating the home, burning on whale oil(the wick was made from moss). Women sewed, embroidered clothes, made coverings for canoes, and wove mats and baskets. The Aleuts developed all types of woven weaving from plants. fibers Aleutian weaving is called for high skill. silk, it differed from the Eskimo and Indian. Women's universal tool was the pekulka - a wide, short and slightly curved knife. The needles were made from bird bones. Aleut settlements were located on the sea coast, often at river mouths. High, open places were chosen so that from there it would be convenient to observe the progress of sea animals and the approach of enemies. The settlements consisted of 2–4 large semi-dugouts (ulyagams). They were built from driftwood and covered with dry grass, skins and turf. They left several rectangular holes in the roof for entry and climbed up there along a log with notches. Inside, bunks were built along the walls. The house accommodated 10–40 families. The family lived on their own part of the bunks, separated from each other by pillars and curtains. Utensils were stored under the bunks. For the summer, each family moved into a building such as a hut or half-dugout made of whale bones and driftwood (ulyaq) - this type of dwelling was more common among the eastern Aleuts. Ulyaks also served as storage areas for food and hunting equipment.

Cloth

The traditional clothing of the Aleuts was a parka - a long, closed jacket made of fur from seals, sea otters, bird skins, and for women - from the skins of sea beavers or seals with the fur inside. On top of it they put on a kamleika - waterproof clothing made from the intestines of sea animals with sleeves, a closed collar and a hood. The edges of the hood and sleeves were tightened with laces. Both parkas and kamleikas were decorated with embroidered stripes and fringes. Men's and women's clothing were the same in cut, with slightly different decorations. Shoes were torbasa - boots made from the skin of sea animals. A more ancient type of torbus had a wide boot with a sewn sole. The Aleuts did not make their own shoes; they exchanged torbas from the Eskimos. Male fishermen also wore trophy shoes.

Hunting headdresses were richly decorated with polychrome painting, carved bone, feathers, and sea lion mustaches, wooden hats of a conical shape (among the “toyon” leaders) or without a top with a greatly elongated front part (among simple hunters). They were worn on the hood over the kamleika. According to S.V. Ivanov, Aleutian hats go back to the most ancient zoomorphic headdresses and are associated with hunting magic. G. Collins, T. Mathiassen, T. Jenness suggested a connection between their ornaments and the ancient Bering Sea culture and, through it, with the ancestors of the Melanesians, Ainu, and Amur peoples. Such headdresses among the Aleuts were especially common during the period of Russian colonization: they were worn by leaders during contacts with Russians - to distinguish them from ordinary fellow tribesmen. They were made by chiselling from a single piece of wood, which was then steamed, giving it the desired shape. (Later - from several pieces of wood, overlapped.) The finished hat was painted with white, black, red, blue, green and yellow colors (ornament - stripes, lines of dots, circles, semicircles, strokes, curvilinear patterns of curls, paired and sigma-shaped spirals and rosettes; sometimes plot drawings), the sides and back were decorated with carved walrus tusk plates, engraved geometrically. ornament into which paint was rubbed. A bone figurine of a bird or animal was attached to the top of the back plate. Steller's whiskers were inserted into the side holes of the plate. up to 50 cm. The number of mustaches depended on the hunting qualities of the owner and indicated the number of walruses he had killed.

Festive and ritual headdresses included hats of various shapes made of leather and bird skins with decorations, and leather headbands with patterned seams. Only men were allowed to wear hats.

They wore necklaces, hand and anklets, inserts and pendants in holes made in and near the lips, in the nose, along the edges of the auricle and in the earlobe, made of bone, stone, wooden and slate sticks, feathers, sea lion whiskers, grass and plant roots. There were widespread tattoo and face and body painting. With the beginning of contacts with the Russians and the adoption of baptism, they disappeared from use.

Aleut associations

The territorial associations of the Aleuts consisted of clan groups that considered their origin from a common ancestor, and were headed by a leader who received power either by inheritance or by election. His responsibilities included trade and political relations, judicial affairs, protection of sea animal rookeries, control over other lands, and military administration. The leader had economic advantages only after military campaigns and trade transactions; in everyday life he was entitled to an equal share with everyone else. In addition to the leader, the clan group was headed by a council of elders. There are references to tribal communal houses, there were elements of secret male unions with typical imitations, disguises, intimidation of women, and secrecy. Young men were accepted on the proposal of an uncle on their mother’s side or (less often) their father’s. There were also women's secret unions that organized dances on the full moon, forbidden for men. The account of kinship is patri-, matri- and bilateral. Patri- and matrilocal marriage. There were avunculates, cousin marriages, polygamy, sororate, levirate, and fraternal polyandry. The Aleuts had slaves (kalga) - mostly prisoners of war. The slave participated in ordinary economic activities, in wars, for bravery or for Good work he could have been released. It is assumed that slavery among the Aleuts developed later than among the Indians of the northwestern coast of America (Tlingit, Kwakiutl, etc.).

Religion

In the 19th century clan communities disintegrated. With the adoption of Christianity in mid. XIX century The main things that disappeared were labor for wife and dowry, polygamy and hospitable heterism. Traditional Aleut beliefs are characterized by animism, ideas about the existence of good and evil spirits. Evil spirits mainly sent diseases. The spirits of ancestors were revered, whose images made of stone, bone, wood, and bird skins were passed down from generation to generation as personal amulets. Patron spirits were also represented by wooden masks worn during ritual dances. Shamanism was widespread. Shamanic mythology included ideas about different worlds, about the infusion of disease-causing spirits into humans. Like some peoples of Siberia, the shamanic costume symbolized a bird. There was also hunting magic - rituals of summoning animals, special hunting prohibitions, wearing amulets; The Aleuts believed that by putting on the skin, a person turns into the corresponding animal that protects the owner.

The calculation of months began in March. Their names were associated with local features of the annual economic cycle and varied among different groups of Aleuts.

Family burials were located in small depressions among the rocks. The deceased were placed in a sitting position. The deceased's tools, weapons, dishes, ritual masks and personal amulets were placed in the burials. Noble Aleuts were embalmed, buried (often along with their slaves) in caves, with a painted pillar placed at the entrance, or the bodies of the deceased were hung in baskets between two pillars.

One of the main holidays of the Aleuts - the winter solstice - included dancing, performances of hunting scenes and mythological scenes, and the distribution of gifts. The rituals preceding the hunting season were accompanied by pantomime and dancing accompanied by singing and a tambourine. The performers wore ritual headdresses and wooden masks depicting the corresponding heroes.

From the end XVIII century Aleuts converted to Orthodoxy were strongly influenced by Russian culture. Their rituals of matchmaking and weddings became widespread. Religious books were translated into the Aleut language, and some of the missionaries came from the aborigines. The Aleuts still remain adherents of Orthodoxy and conduct services in Russian and Aleutian. Since 1799, the territory of the Aleutian Islands and the adjacent part of Alaska was controlled by the Russian-American Company (RAC). The former spontaneous contacts of the Aleuts with Russian industrialists were replaced by organized management. The main goal of the RAC in relation to the Aleuts was the desire to preserve their traditional economy as a reliable source of profit. Officials appointed clerks and kayakers to organize fishing on the remote islands. The official status of the Aleuts approached the status of other foreigners of the Russian Empire; they paid yasak to the treasury, and from 1821 they were recognized as Russian subjects.

In 1867, the Aleutian Islands, along with Alaska, were sold to the United States. Initially, their territory was under military control, and in 1884 it received the status of a district. The Aleuts maintained contacts with whalers and fur traders. Since 1887, in connection with the discovery of gold deposits in Alaska, its industrial development began, and the number of newcomers increased sharply. The fish canning industry developed in the Aleutian Islands.

The culture of the indigenous people was influenced big influence missionary activities. The assimilation of the Aleuts accelerated, especially through schools where teaching was conducted in English language. All this had a destructive effect on their traditional culture and way of life. In 1912, Alaska (with the Aleutian Islands) received the status of a territory with local self-government. Since 1915, like the entire indigenous population of Alaska, the Aleuts were equal in rights to US Indians and placed under the tutelage of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. In 1924 they received citizenship rights. In 1959, Alaska became a US state.

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