Russian architects of the 18th century and their buildings. Russian classicism in architecture. Russian culture of the 17th century

Plan:

1. Introduction
2.) Main part.
I.) Architecture of the first half of the 18th century: Baroque
II.) Baroque architecture of the mid-18th century
III.) Prerequisites for the emergence and development of classicism
IV.) Architecture of early classicism (1760-1780)
V.) Architecture of strict classicism (1780-1800)
3.) Conclusion
4.) List of used literature

1. Introduction.
For many centuries of Russian history, wood remained the main material in the construction of buildings and structures. It was in wooden architecture that many construction and compositional techniques were developed that met the natural and climatic conditions and artistic tastes of the people, which later influenced the formation of stone architecture.
Frequent fires accelerated the replacement of wood with stone in important urban structures such as city walls, towers and temples. The wooden walls of the Novgorod brainchild with an earthen rampart and ditch are mentioned around 1044, and the first information about a stone fence dates back to 1302. The first information about the stone fence of Kyiv dates back to 1037, Staraya Ladoga - 1116, Moscow - 1367. Despite some differences in architecture in certain parts of Rus', it had a number of common features, determined by the same conditions of development. This allows us to talk about Russian architecture in general and its artistic manifestation in different regions of the country throughout the history of the people.
Architecture is a phenomenon derived from a specific functional need, depending both on construction and technical capabilities (building materials and structures), and on aesthetic ideas, determined by the artistic views and tastes of the people, their creative ideas.
When perceiving works of Russian architecture, regardless of the time of their construction and size, the proportionality of the relationship between man and building is clearly visible. A peasant hut, a city residential building, a church or other building - they are all on a human scale, which gives Russian architecture a humanistic character.

2.) Main part.
I.) Architecture of the first half of the 18th century: Baroque.
The seventeenth century marks the end of the 700-year period of ancient Russian stone construction, which has written more than one remarkable page in the chronicle of world architecture. The sprouts of new monetary and trade relations and a rational worldview are breaking through the ossified forms of Domostroevsky life and scholastic* dogmas of theology. The sound views of the serving nobility and the economically prosperous merchants affect many aspects of public life and its material shell - architecture. Trade expanded, especially at the end of the 17th century, with Germany, Flanders, and England. Cultural ties with Poland and Holland are becoming closer. The broadening of horizons and the penetration of elements of Western European artistic culture into art and architecture was facilitated by the joint creative work of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian craftsmen. The historical unity of three fraternal peoples, largely based on common architectural trends, mutually enriched their skills. Life urgently demanded the construction of guest courtyards, administrative buildings, industrial enterprises, posed new practical problems, and obliged architects to look for technical and artistic solutions. The centralization of state power was accompanied by regulation in the field of construction. Architectural and technical documentation is being normalized. Design and reporting materials are being improved, large-scale drawings are being mastered, and architectural and construction details are being unified.
The end of the 17th century is a connecting link between ancient Russian architecture and the architecture of the 17th century, a time that prepared the ground for a new artistic worldview, promoting the creative perception of the order tectonic system and the formation of masters of architecture for the transition to regular civil construction.
At the beginning of the 17th century, St. Petersburg became the main construction center. In 1700, Russia began the Northern War against Sweden to liberate Russian lands and return the Neva banks to Russia. On May 1, 1703, Russian troops entered the Nyenschanz fortress (at the confluence of the Okhta and Neva rivers). the main task The northern war was decided by the capture of the fortress. Access to the Baltic Sea was open for Russia. It was only necessary to secure it and secure it. At the branching of the Neva into three branches, on a small Hare Island approximately 750 by 350 meters long and wide, on May 27, 1703, according to the drawings of Peter I and military engineers, a fortress of a new bastion type was founded - the Peter and Paul Fortress. To cover the mouth of the Neva from the sea, the construction of the naval base Kronshlot (Kronstadt) began on Kotlin Island in 1703. On the southern bank of the Neva, almost opposite Peter and Paul Fortress, in 1704, according to the drawings of Peter I, a shipbuilding shipyard-fortress was laid - the Admiralty. Under the protection of three interacting fortresses, the construction of St. Petersburg began, which in 1712 became the new capital of Russia, proclaimed an empire in 1721.
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*Scholasticism (from the Greek scholastikos - school, scientist), a type of religious philosophy characterized by a combination of theological-dogmatic premises with rationalistic methodology and interest in formal-logical problems.

State and cultural transformations during the Peter the Great period brought to life industrial and public buildings and structures - fortifications, shipyards, factories, industrial and hospitality yards, colleges, hospitals, educational and museum premises, theaters and residential buildings. The development of St. Petersburg was carried out mainly along the banks of the Neva, its branches and channels, due to the severe swampiness of the soil and access to waterways.
The placement of city-forming structures was carried out according to the instructions of Peter I himself. Initially, settlements were grouped according to tradition into settlements. They were built in the form of peasant huts or city mansions with facades, sometimes
painted to resemble brickwork. The only example of the early period is the later recreated log house of Peter I on the banks of the Neva on the Petrograd side, the outside was painted to look like brick.
Since 1710, only brick houses began to be built. Despite forced resettlement measures in St. Petersburg, construction proceeded slowly. The ideological and political importance of the rapid construction of the capital put forward important tasks for architecture. The city had to be created based on advanced urban planning principles, ensuring its prestigious and representative character not only in its external architectural and artistic appearance, but also in its planning structure. There was a shortage of qualified architects. And in 1709, the Chancellery was established, which was in charge of all construction matters. A school for the initial study of architecture was created under it. It was hoped that the students of this school would gain deeper knowledge in architectural teams in the process of practical cooperation between experienced architects. However, the school and teams could not support the expanding capital construction. Peter I invited experienced architects from Western countries, which made it possible to almost immediately involve them in the construction of the city. They also select talented young people and send them to study engineering and architectural arts in Western European countries.
The following were invited to the new capital in 1710: Italians N. Michetti, G. Chiaveri, C. B. Rastrelli, Frenchman J. B. Leblon, Germans G. Matornovi, I. Schendel, A. Schlüter, Dutchman G. Van Boles. They had to not only build, but also train Russian architects from the students who worked with them. Italians came from Moscow - M. Fontana and fortification engineer and architect Domenico Trezzini. Gifted Russian architects I.P.Zarudny, D.V.Aksamitov, P.Potapov, M.I.Chochlakov, Ya.G.Bukhvostov, G.Ustinov and others successfully worked in Moscow. At the same time, the art of architecture was comprehended by those sent abroad who later became major architects: Ivan Korobov, Mordvinov and Ivan Michurin, Pyotr Eropkin, Timofey Usov and others. Thus, architects of different national schools worked in the new capital, but they created differently than in their homeland, obeying the tastes and requirements of customers, as well as adapting to the specific conditions of the city under construction. As a result of their activities, the architecture of St. Petersburg at that time became a kind of fusion of native Russian artistic traditions and formal elements brought from Western European countries.

Russian, Italian, Dutch, German and French architects erected mansions, palaces, temples and government buildings in the Russian capital, the architecture of which had common artistic features that defined the architectural style, usually called Russian Baroque of the 18th century or Peter's Baroque.
All the diversity of individual creative views of various architects in practice was softened under the influence of two main factors: firstly, the influence of centuries-old Russian traditions, the carriers and conductors of which were the executors of architectural designs - numerous carpenters, masons, plasterers, sculptors and other construction craftsmen. Secondly, the role of the customers, and above all Peter I himself, who extremely carefully and demandingly examined all the design proposals of the architects, rejecting those that did not correspond, from his point of view, with the appearance of the capital, or making significant and sometimes decisive changes. Often he himself indicated where, what and how to build, becoming an architect. On his initiative, master plans for St. Petersburg were developed. The artistic commonality of St. Petersburg buildings of Peter the Great's time is also explained by the peculiarities of building materials. Houses in the capital were built of mud-dove type and brick, plastered in two colors (the walls were red, light brown or green, and the blades, pilasters, platbands, and rustications on the corners were white). To attract masons to St. Petersburg, Peter I in 1714 issued a decree prohibiting construction with stone and brick throughout Russia, except the capital. The features of the architectural style can be clearly seen when considering the surviving architectural works of that time, such as "Monplaisir" and "Hermitage" in Petegof, the building of the Kunstkamera and the Twelve Colleges in St. Petersburg, etc.
At the direction of Peter I, Domenico Trezzini (1670-1734), for the first time in Russian architecture, developed in 1714 exemplary designs for residential buildings intended for developers of different incomes: small one-story ones for the poorest population, larger ones for the nobles. The French architect J.B. Leblon (1679-1719) developed a project for a two-story house “for eminent people.” The exemplary project “reminiscent of the well-preserved summer palace of Peter I, which was built by D. Trezzini in 1710-1714 in the summer garden.
Despite the simplicity of the “exemplary” residential building projects, they are all distinguished by the character of the facades with rhythmically placed openings, framed by platbands of restrained outlines and figured gates on the side. Unlike the medieval development of Russian cities, where residential buildings stood behind fences in the depths of plots, all houses in the capital had to face the red lines* of streets and embankments, forming the front of their development and thereby giving the city an organized appearance. This urban planning innovation is reflected in the development of Moscow. Along with residential buildings In St. Petersburg and its suburbs, palaces with representative facades and vast, richly decorated state rooms were built.
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* Conditional boundary in urban planning, separating the roadway of the street from the building area

Decorative sculpture began to be used in combination with architecture, and picturesque decoration began to be used in interiors. Country and suburban residences with gardens are being created. The largest public buildings created by D. Trezzini that have survived to this day are the Peter and Paul Cathedral and the building of the Twelve Colleges. From under the arch of the Peter's Gate, the Peter and Paul Cathedral (1712-1733) clearly appears. The dynamic silhouette of the cathedral's bell tower, crowned with a high gilded spire and a weather vane in the form of an angel, rises from behind the walls of the fortress to 122 meters, becoming one of the most expressive dominant features in the panorama of the city on the Neva. The cathedral marked a complete departure from the compositional traditionalism of Russian temple construction. The cathedral was an innovative phenomenon for Russia. In its plan and appearance, it is not similar to Orthodox, cross-domed, five-domed or hipped churches. The cathedral is a rectangular building, elongated from west to east. The interior space of the cathedral is divided by powerful pylons* into three almost equal and identical in height (16 meters) spans. This type is called hall, in contrast to churches, in which, with the same plan, the middle span is higher and often wider than the side ones. The layout and silhouette composition of the cathedral were based on the structure of Baltic Lutheran hall-type churches with a bell tower topped with a spire. It was he who was supposed to become a symbol of the establishment of Russia at the mouth of the Neva and a symbol of the creative power of the Russian people. The spire, the prominent end of church bell towers, was a typical phenomenon for Peter's Petersburg, determining the silhouette character of the city's development in the first third of the 18th century. The interior decoration should also be noted - a wooden carved gilded iconostasis in the Baroque style. The iconostasis was made under the direction of the architect and artist I.P. Zarudny (1722-1727) by an artel of Moscow craftsmen.
On Vasilyevsky Island The political center of the capital was formed and, according to the project of D. Trezzini, a building of twelve colleges was erected (10 colleges - government bodies; the Senate and the Synod). The three-story building, 400 meters long, consists of twelve identical buildings with separate roofs and porticoes, connected at the ends. All buildings are united by an open arcade** with a long corridor on the second floor. According to the tradition of Peter the Great's time, the building was painted in two colors: brick red and white. The original decoration of the interiors in the form of stucco decoration has been preserved only in the Petrovsky Hall. The architectural value of that time should be noted for the palace of A.D. Menshikov (1710-1720). The three-tier order system of the facade with tiered rhythmic rows of pilasters was based on the artistic principles of Italian Renaissance architecture. The most remarkable architectural heritage is the state rooms, lined with Dutch tiles and the main staircase with columns and pilasters of the Baroque order.
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*Pylon (from the Greek pylon, lit. - gate, entrance), massive pillars that serve as a support for ceilings or stand on the sides of entrances or driveways.
**Arcade (French arcade), a series of identical arches supported by columns or pillars.

The use of orders in the architecture of St. Petersburg was a continuation of the traditions embodied in many buildings in Moscow of an earlier time. The original silhouette of the Kunstkamera building occupies a special place in the panorama of the banks of the Neva. The two wings of the three-story building on the ground floor are united by a four-story tower. The angles of the risalits* and the fractures of the tower walls, combined with the two-tone coloring of the facade, give the building an elegant look. The silhouette of the tower clearly shows the continuity of the traditional stepped multi-tiered buildings of Moscow at the beginning of the 18th century. After the fire, the façade was simplified during restoration.
In 1710, Peter I issued a decree obliging construction south coast Gulf of Finland. Palace and park ensembles are being built in Peterhof. By 1725, a two-story Nagorny Palace was erected. IN further palace underwent reconstruction and was expanded in the middle of the 18th century. Architect Rastrelli.
During the same period, a small palace was built near the bay itself, consisting of several rooms for Peter I and a state hall - the Monplaisir Palace. The Hermitage pavilion for privacy and the small two-story Marly palace were built.
In addition to St. Petersburg, construction was carried out in Moscow and other cities of the Russian Empire. As a result of the fire in Moscow in 1699, it was forbidden to erect wooden buildings in fire areas.
At the same time, the formal artistic convergence of the architecture of stone buildings in Moscow with Western European architecture, which began at the end of the 17th century, became even more noticeable at the beginning of the 18th century. An example of this is: the palace of F.Ya. Lefort on the Yauza (1697-1699); Old Mint (1697); Church of the Assumption on Pokrovka (1695-1699); Church of the Sign in Dubrovitsy (1690-1704). This indicates that domestic architects knew the order tectonic system and could skillfully combine order and other elements with Russian traditional techniques. An example of such a combination is the Lefortovo Palace in Nemetskaya Sloboda, built by one of the Moscow architects. The facades of the palace are divided by the measured rhythm of pilasters of the great Corinthian order. On the sides of the entrance arch their rhythm changes and they form a pilaster portico with a pediment. The planned system at the same time is a composition of a closed square, adopted in Rus' for trading and other yards.
In the 18th century, the order system became a common decorative technique for giving various buildings an elegant appearance.
This is evidenced by the artistic design of the main entrance to the courtyard
Arsenal (1702-1736) in the Kremlin, which represents a skillful transformation of orders combined with an abundance of decorative relief details. Remarkable in its architecture and artistic significance in Moscow architecture is the Church of the Archangel Gabriel (1701-1707), created by the architect I.P. Zarudny (1670-1727). The architect showed excellent skill in using order systems. The load-bearing part of the church volumes is designed using a large order, which is combined with elegant compositions of porticoes at the entrance made of two light columns
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*Rizalit (from Italian risalita - protrusion), part of the building protruding beyond the main building. façade line; usually located symmetrically relative to to the central axis of the facade.

Corinthian order supporting a decoratively designed entablature with a balustrade. The order in the building expresses the tectonics of the exhibition.
A new direction in the church architecture of Moscow, clearly expressed in the architecture of the Church of the Archangel Gabriel (Menshikov Tower), consisting in a harmonious combination of traditional Russian volumetric-spatial composition with formal elements of the new style, left an interesting example in Moscow - the Church of John the Warrior (1709-1713) on Yakimanka.
Architects I.A. Mordvinov and I.F. Michurin (1700-1763) were sent from St. Petersburg to Moscow. They were involved in drawing up plans for the Kremlin, Kitai-gorod and partly White City in connection with the move of the royal court to Moscow and the construction of palaces of the court nobility along the banks of the Yauza. Michurin in 1734-1739 drew up a plan for Moscow, which represents a significant urban planning document of Moscow in the 18th century. It depicted the development of the city at that time. Other Russian cities continued to develop. An interesting example of the durability of national architectural traditions in the province is the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Kazan (1726).

II.) Baroque architecture of the mid-18th century.
During the period described, V.N. Tatishchev and M.V. Lomonosov laid the foundations of Russian historical science. Russian science and culture are of a high level, not inferior to European ones. Thanks to this, the first university was opened in Russia in 1755, and the Academy of Arts was opened in St. Petersburg, which played a major role in the development of the art and architecture of classicism.
Russia in the middle of the 18th century became one of the most developed European countries. All this determined the solemn and decorative appearance of palaces and temples - the main types of monumental buildings in Russia during this period. The most outstanding architects of that time included students of I.K. Korobov-S.I. Chevakinsky and D.V. Ukhtomsky. The largest architect of the mid-18th century was F.B. Rastrelli. At the same time, many unknown serf architects, painters, sculptors, carvers and other masters of applied art were working with him.
In the middle of the 18th century, the Baroque style in Russia had pronounced original features due to the continuity of decorative compositional techniques of Russian architecture of the early 18th century. One cannot help but emphasize the specific national feature of Baroque architecture in the mid-18th century - the polychromy of facades, the walls of which are painted blue, red, yellow and green. This is complemented by beams of columns, pilasters, and framed windows. A characteristic feature of architectural works is that groups of buildings or buildings often form a closed architectural ensemble, revealing itself only when one penetrates inside it. In palace and church premises, along with stucco picturesque decoration of walls and ceilings, multicolor patterned floors were made from different types of wood. The ceiling painting creates the illusion of the infinity of the rising hall, which is emphasized by figures of different proportions floating in the sky, clearly separating their different distances from the viewer. The walls of the front rooms were framed with complex profiled gilded rods. The techniques for planning the halls are interesting. In palaces they are located according to the principle that the doors of passage halls are on a common axis, and their width illusorily increases.
Imperial and estate palaces were created in unity with gardens and parks, which were characterized by a regular planning system with straight alleys, trimmed tree vegetation and ornamental flower beds. In this section, special mention should be made of the works of Rastrelli's chief architect Francesco Bartolomeo (1700-1771), whose work reached its apogee in 1740-1750. The main works include: the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg; palaces in Courland (Latvia), in Rundava and Mitava (Jelgava); palaces of the Elizabethan nobles M.I. Vorontsov and S.G. Stroganov in St. Petersburg; imperial palaces- Winter in the capital, Bolshoi (Catherine) in Tsarskoe Selo (Pushkin), Grand Palace in Peterhof, St. Andrew's Church and Mariinsky Palace in Kyiv. All of them characterize the Baroque style of the mid-18th century in Russia. The architect S.I. Chevakinsky worked simultaneously with F.B. Rastrelli. (1713-1770). The most remarkable creation of Chevakinsky S.I. surviving to this day was the design and construction of the huge two-story St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral (1753-1762) in St. Petersburg. Chevakinsky’s student was the future architect V.I. Bazhenov.
The largest representative of the Moscow Baroque of the mid-18th century was the architect D.V. Ukhtomsky. (1719-1774). His work developed under the influence of the artistic views and works of F.B. Rastrelli, in particular in Moscow and the Moscow region: palaces in the Kremlin, Annegof and Perov. Only one work by Ukhtomsky has survived to this day - the five-tiered bell tower in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra in Zagorsk.

III.) Prerequisites for the emergence and development of classicism.
In the 1760s, a change in architectural and artistic style occurred in Russia. Decorative baroque, which reached its apogee in the work of the greatest representative of this trend - the architect F.B. Rastrelli, gave way to classicism, which quickly established itself in St. Petersburg and Moscow, and then spread throughout the country. Classicism (from Latin - exemplary) is an artistic style that develops through the creative borrowing of forms, compositions and examples of art from the ancient world and the Italian Renaissance.
The architecture of classicism is characterized by geometrically correct plans, logic and balance of symmetrical compositions, strict harmony of proportions and the widespread use of the order tectonic system. The decorative style of the Baroque ceased to correspond to the economic capabilities of the circle of customers, which was increasingly expanding to include small landed nobles and merchants. It also ceased to respond to changing aesthetic views.
The development of architecture is determined by economic and social factors. The country's economy led to the formation of an extensive domestic market and increased foreign trade, which contributed to the productivity of landowners' farms, crafts and industrial production. As a result, the need arose for the construction of government-owned and privately owned structures, often of national importance. These included commercial buildings: guest courtyards, markets, fairgrounds, contract houses, shops, and various warehouse buildings. As well as unique public buildings - stock exchanges and banks.
Many government administrative buildings began to be built in cities: governor's houses, hospitals, prison castles, barracks for military garrisons. Culture and education developed intensively, which necessitated the construction of many buildings, educational institutions, various academies, institutes - boarding houses for noble and middle-class children, theaters and libraries. Cities grew rapidly, primarily due to estate-type residential development. In the conditions of enormous construction taking place in cities and estates, increased construction needs, architectural techniques and busy forms of Baroque, exquisitely complex and magnificent, turned out to be unacceptable, since the decorativeness of this style required significant material costs and a large number of qualified craftsmen of various specialties. Based on the above, there was an urgent need to revise the fundamentals of architecture. Thus, deep domestic preconditions of a material and ideological nature determined the crisis of the Baroque style, its extinction and led in Russia to the search for economic and realistic architecture. Therefore, it was the classical architecture of antiquity, expedient, simple and clear and at the same time expressive, that served as a standard of beauty and became a kind of ideal, the basis of classicism emerging in Russia.

IV.) Architecture of early classicism (1760-1780).
To guide widespread urban planning activities, a commission on the stone construction of St. Petersburg and Moscow was established in December 1762. Created to regulate the development of both capitals, it soon began to manage all urban planning in the country. The commission functioned until 1796. During this period, it was successively led by prominent architects: A.V. Kvasov (1763-1772); I.E. Starov (1772-1774); I. Lem (1775-1796). In addition to regulating the planning of St. Petersburg and Moscow, the commission over 34 years created master plans for 24 cities (Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Tomsk, Pskov, Voronezh, Vitebsk and others). The main city-forming factors were considered to be water and land routes, established administrative and commercial areas, and clear city boundaries. Streamlining urban planning based on a geometrically regular rectangular system. The construction of city streets and squares was regulated by height. The main streets and squares were to be lined with model houses, placed close to each other. This contributed to the unity of street organization. The architectural appearance of the houses was determined by several approved exemplary facade designs. They were distinguished by the simplicity of their architectural solutions; their planes were enlivened only by the figured repeating frames of the window openings.
In Russian cities, residential buildings usually had one or two floors, only in St. Petersburg the number of floors rose to three or four. During this period, A.V. Kvasov developed a project for the improvement of the Fontanka River embankment. The formation of through passage embankments and bridgehead areas turned the Fontanka into an important arc-forming highway. For Moscow in 1775, a new master plan was drawn up, preserving the radial-ring structure and outlining a system of squares in a semi-ring covering the Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod. For consideration and approval of privately owned development projects in 1775-1778. a special Stone Order functioned. In the 1760s, features of classicism began to appear more and more noticeably in Russian architecture. The earliest manifestation of classicism was the project of the "Pleasure House" in Oranienbaum (now does not exist). Compiled by the architect A.F. Kokorin and the so-called Boat House of A.F. Vista (1761-1762) in the Peter and Paul Fortress.
During this period, famous architects worked in Russia: Yu.M. Felten and K.M. Blank, the Italian A. Rinaldi, the Frenchman T.B. Wallen-Delamont. Considering this period in the chronological sequence of construction of buildings, it should be noted that classical forms and clear compositional techniques increasingly replaced excessive decorativeness. Here it is necessary to consider the main creations of architects that have survived to this day. Antonio Rinaldi (1710-1794) - Chinese Palace (1762-1768) in Oranienbaum. The interior of the palace testifies to the high artistic skill of the architect. The whimsical outlines of the palace were in harmony with the surrounding park composition, with an artificial reservoir and beautifully decorated vegetation. The ceremonial rooms of the one-story palace are especially distinguished by their majestic beauty - the Great Hall, the Oval Hall, the Hall of the Muses. Chinese cabinet with elements of decoration, Glass bead cabinet. The Rolling Hill Pavilion (1762-1774) is a well-preserved three-story pavilion with colonnades of bypass galleries on the second and third floors. The pavilion in Lomonosov is the only surviving reminder of folk entertainment. Marble Palace(1768-1785) is one of the unique phenomena of St. Petersburg and Russia, thanks to the multi-colored cladding of the facades. The three-story building is located on the site between the Neva and the Field of Mars and has a U-shaped composition with wings forming a rather deep front courtyard. The palace in Gatchina (1766-1781) is three-story with a passage gallery, at the bottom the main building is complemented by pentagonal six-tiered view towers and arched two-story wings covering the front courtyard. After the transfer of the palace to Tsarevich Pavel (1783), it was rebuilt inside and supplemented with closed squares at the ends of the original composition by V.F. Brenna.
The restrained plasticity of the facades is complemented by the nobility of the local stone - light gray Pudost limestone. The ceremonial interiors are located on the second floor, the most significant of which are the White Hall, the Antechamber, the marble dining room and others. The palace was destroyed during the years of fascist occupation. Now restored. In addition to those mentioned above, A. Rinaldi built several Orthodox churches, the peculiarity of which is the combination in one composition of a five-domed structure, newly established in the Baroque period, and a high multi-tiered bell tower. The artificial use of classical orders, their tiered arrangement on bell towers and the delicate layout of the facades testify to the stylistic reality of artistic images, which corresponds to early classicism. In addition to monumental buildings, A. Rinaldi created a number of memorial structures. These include the Oryol Gate (1777-1782); Chesme Column (171-1778) in Pushkin; Chesma Obelisk in Gatchina (1755-1778). The establishment of the Academy of Arts in 1757 brought about new architects, both Russian and foreign. These include A.F. Kokorinov (1726-1772), who came from Moscow and J.B. Vallin-Delamont (1729-1800), invited from France by I.I. Shuvalov. The creations of these architects include the palace of G.A. Demidov. A special feature of the Demidov Palace is the cast-iron external terrace and cast-iron stairs with arched diverging flights connecting the palace with the garden. The building of the Academy of Arts (1764-1788) on the Universitetskaya embankment of Vasilyevsky Island. The buildings clearly show the style of early classicism. This should include the main building of the Herzen Pedagogical Institute. Northern façade of the Small Hermitage; Construction of a large Gostiny Dvor, built on foundations laid along the contour of the entire block. A.F. Kokorinov and J.B. Vallin-Delamont created palace ensembles in Russia that reflected the architecture of Parisian mansions and hotels with a closed front courtyard. An example of this could be the palace of I.G. Chernyshev, which has not survived to this day. In the middle of the 19th century, in its place near the Blue Bridge, the Mariinsky Palace was erected by the architect A.I. Stackenschneider. During the same period, the architect Yu.M. Felton launched a large construction activity. His work was formed under the influence of F.B. Rastrelli, and then he began to create within the framework of early classicism. The most significant creations of Felten are: the building of the Great Hermitage, the Alexander Institute, located next to the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery. The institute building with three courtyards has well preserved its original appearance, consistent with early classicism. The most perfect work of Yu.M. Felten is a fence Summer Garden from the side of the Neva embankment (1770-1784). It was created with the creative participation of P.E. Egorov (1731-1789); the iron links were forged by Tula blacksmiths, and the granite pillars with figured vases and the granite base were made by Putilov stonemasons. The fence is distinguished by simplicity, amazing proportionality and harmony of parts and the whole. The turn of Russian architecture towards classicism in Moscow was most clearly manifested in the huge ensemble of the Orphanage, erected in (1764-1770), not far from the Kremlin on the banks of the Moscow River according to the plans of the architect K.I. Blank (1728-1793). In the Kuskovo estate near Moscow, K.I. Blank erected the impressive Hermitage pavilion in 1860. In accordance with the emergence and development of classicism, the regular French system of landscape art is replaced by the landscape (English system), which has spread to Western Europe and above all in England.

V.) Architecture of strict classicism (1780-1800)
The last quarter of the eighteenth century was marked by major socio-historical events (Crimea and north coast Black Sea). The state's economy developed rapidly. An all-Russian market, fairs and shopping centers were formed. The metallurgical industry developed significantly. Trade with Central Asia and China expanded. The revitalization of economic life contributed to the quantitative and qualitative growth of cities and landowners' estates. All these phenomena are noticeably reflected in urban planning and architecture. The architecture of the Russian province was characterized by two features: most cities received new general plans. The architecture of cities, especially urban centers, was formed on the basis of techniques of strict classicism. Along with the types of buildings previously known, new structures began to be built in cities. In cities that still retained traces of defensive structures, they increasingly disappeared as a result of the implementation of new plans, and these cities acquired urban planning features characteristic of most Russian cities. Estate construction expanded, especially in the south of Russia and the Volga region. At the same time, a system was developed for the placement of various outbuildings depending on natural conditions . In the provincial estates of noble owners, manor houses were stone buildings of the palace type. The ceremonial architecture of classicism with porticoes became the personification of social and economic prestige. During the period under review, outstanding Russian architects created architectural creations that are the property of not only Russia, but the whole world. Some of them, namely: Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov (1737-1799) - construction of the Grand Kremlin Palace and college buildings on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin. Despite the fact that the outstanding plan was realized, its significance for the fate of Russian architecture was not great, first of all, for the final establishment of classicism as the main stylistic direction in the development of Russian architecture. Creation of a country royal palace and park residence in the village of Tsaritsyno near Moscow. All the buildings of the ensemble are located on rough terrain, parts of which are connected by two figured bridges, resulting in a single, unusually beautiful panorama that has no analogues in the history of architecture. Pashkov House (1784-1786), now the old building of the V.I. Lenin Library. Consisting of three different parts, the silhouette composition of the house crowning a green hillock is still one of the most perfect works of all Russian classicism of the late 18th century. The culmination of Bazhenov’s work was the project of the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg (1797-1800). The castle was built without the participation of an architect; the managing builder was V.F. Brenna, who made significant changes to the interpretation of the main facade. Kazakov M.F.: Petrovsky Palace - he gave the appearance of the palace a pronounced national character, the ensemble of the Petrovsky Palace is an outstanding example of a harmonious architectural synthesis of classical principles and Russian national painting. The Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin - the Senate rotunda is recognized in the architecture of Russian classicism as the best ceremonial round hall and is the first example of a composition of this type in Russia. This hall is an important link in the development of Russian classicism. Church of Philip Metropolitan (1777-1788). A classic Russian composition was used in relation to an Orthodox church. In the second half of the 18th century, the rotunda began to be embodied in the architecture of Russian classicism when creating religious buildings; it was also used in the construction of the Baryshnikov mausoleum near Smolensk (1784-1802). Golitsyn hospital (now the first city hospital of Pirogov). University building (1786-1793). The University building was damaged in 1812 and was rebuilt with changes in 1817-1819.
The approval of a new general plan for Moscow in 1775 stimulated privately owned residential development, which developed widely in 1780-1800. By this time, two space-planning types of urban estates had finally been developed - the first main residential building and outbuildings located along the red line of the street, forming a three-part system that forms the development front; the second is a residential estate with an open front courtyard surrounded by wings and outbuildings. Since 1770, the development of classicism based on the ancient Roman principles of the Renaissance has been clearly visible in St. Petersburg construction. Some of them, namely: architect Starov I.E. (1745-1808) erects the Tauride Palace (1883-1789) with a landscape garden; Trinity Cathedral (1778-1790) in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. The construction of the cathedral had an important ideological and patriotic significance, since under the arches of the temple there is the tomb of Alexander Nevsky. In addition to the greatest buildings mentioned above, Starov was engaged in design for the southern provinces, developed plans for the new cities of Nikolaev and Yekaterinoslavl; in the latter, the architect built the palace of the governor of the region - G.A. Potemkin.
Architect Volkov F.I. (1755-1803). By 1790, he developed exemplary designs for barracks buildings, subordinating their appearance to the principles of classicism. The largest works are the building of the Naval Cadet Corps (1796-1798) on the Neva embankment. Ensemble of the General Post Office (1782-1789).
Architect Quarenghi and Giacomo (1744-1817). Quarenghi's creations clearly embody the features of strict classicism. Some of them: the dacha of A.A. Bezborodko (1783-1788). The building of the Academy of Sciences (1783-1789), the Hermitage Theater (1783-1787), the building of the Assignation Bank (1783-1790), the Alexander Palace (1792-1796) in Tsarskoye Selo, the Arc de Triomphe in 1814 - Narva Gate.
Important landscaping work continued in St. Petersburg. Granite embankments of the Neva, small rivers and channels were created. Remarkable architectural monuments were erected, which became important city-forming elements. On the banks of the Neva, before the unfinished construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral, one of the best equestrian elements in Europe was unveiled in 1782 - a monument to Peter I (sculptor E.M. Falcone and M.A. Collo; the snake was made by sculptor F.G. Gordeev). A wonderful bronze hollow sculptural composition on a natural granite rock. The size of the rock (10.1 meters high, 14.5 meters long, 5.5 meters wide) corresponded to a spacious coastal area. Another monument to Peter I was installed in the ensemble of the Mikhailovsky Castle (1800). A bronze equestrian statue was used (sculptor K.B. Rastreli - father, architect F.I. Volkov, bas-reliefs - sculptors V.I. Demont-Malinovsky, I.I. Terebinov, I. Moiseev under the direction of M.I. Kozlovsky) . In 1799, a 14-meter obelisk “Rumyantsev” was erected on Tsaritsyn Meadow (Field of Mars) (architect V.F. Brenna); in 1818 it was moved to Vasilievsky Island to the First Cadet Corps, where the outstanding military leader P.A. Rumyantsev studied. In 1801, on Tsaritsyn Meadow there was
A monument to the great Russian commander A.V. Suvorov was opened (sculptor M.I. Kozlovsky, moved closer to the bank of the Neva.

3.) Conclusion.
The most important progressive traditions of Russian architecture, which are of great importance for the practice of late architecture, are ensemble and urban planning art. If the desire to form architectural ensembles was initially intuitive, then later it became conscious.
Architecture was transformed over time, but nevertheless, some features of Russian architecture existed and developed over the centuries, maintaining traditional stability until the 20th century, when the cosmopolitan essence of imperialism began to gradually erase them.

4.) List of used literature .

Arkin D.E. Russian architectural treatise-code of the 18th century. Architectural expedition position. - In the book: Architectural archive. M., 1946.

Belekhov N.N., Petrov A.N. Ivan Starov. M., 1950.

Pilyavsky V.I. History of Russian architecture. L., 1984.

I.M.Schmidt

The eighteenth century is a time of remarkable flowering of Russian architecture. Continuing; on the one hand, their national traditions During this period, Russian masters began to actively master the experience of contemporary Western European architecture, reworking its principles in relation to the specific historical needs and conditions of their country. They have greatly enriched world architecture, introducing unique features into its development.

For Russian architecture of the 18th century. Characterized by the decisive predominance of secular architecture over religious architecture, the breadth of urban plans and solutions. A new capital was being built - St. Petersburg, and as the state strengthened, old cities were expanded and rebuilt.

The decrees of Peter I contained specific orders relating to architecture and construction. Thus, his special order prescribed that the facades of newly constructed buildings should be placed on the red line of the streets, while in ancient Russian cities houses were often located in the depths of courtyards, behind various outbuildings.

According to a number of its stylistic features, Russian architecture of the first half of the 18th century. can undoubtedly be compared with the Baroque style dominant in Europe.

Nevertheless, a direct analogy cannot be drawn here. Russian architecture - especially from the time of Peter the Great - had a much greater simplicity of form than was characteristic of the late Baroque style in the West. In its ideological content, it affirmed the patriotic ideas of the greatness of the Russian state.

One of the most remarkable buildings of the early 18th century is the Arsenal building in the Moscow Kremlin (1702-1736; architects Dmitry Ivanov, Mikhail Choglokov and Christoph Conrad). The large length of the building, the calm surface of the walls with sparsely spaced windows and the solemn and monumental design of the main gate clearly indicate a new direction in architecture. A completely unique solution is the Arsenal's small paired windows, which have a semi-circular finish and huge external slopes like deep niches.

New trends also penetrated into religious architecture. A striking example of this is the Church of the Archangel Gabriel, better known as the Menshikov Tower. It was built in 1704-1707. in Moscow, on the territory of the estate of A. D. Menshikov near Chistye Prudy, by the architect Ivan Petrovich Zarudny (died in 1727). Before the fire of 1723 (caused by a lightning strike), the Menshikov Tower - like the bell tower of the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg, which was built shortly after - was crowned with a high wooden spire, at the end of which was a gilded copper figure of the archangel. The height of this church exceeded the bell tower of Ivan the Great in the Kremlin ( The light, elongated dome of this church that now exists with a unique shape was made already at the beginning of the 19th century. The restoration of the church dates back to 1780.).

I.P. 3arudny. Church of the Archangel Gabriel (“Menshikov Tower”) in Moscow. 1704-1707 View from the southwest.

The Menshikov Tower is characteristic of Russian church architecture of the late 17th century. a composition of several tiers - “octagons” on a “quadruple”. At the same time, compared to the 17th century. here new trends are clearly outlined and new architectural techniques are used. Particularly bold and innovative was the use of a high spire in a church building, which was then so successfully used by St. Petersburg architects. Zarudny's appeal to the classical methods of the order system is characteristic. In particular, columns with Corinthian capitals, unusual for ancient Russian architecture, were introduced with great artistic tact. And quite boldly - powerful volutes flanking the main entrance to the temple and giving it a special monumentality, originality and solemnity.

Zarudny also created wooden triumphal gates in Moscow - in honor of the Poltava victory (1709) and the conclusion of the Nystadt Peace (1721). Since the time of Peter the Great, the erection of triumphal arches has become a frequent phenomenon in the history of Russian architecture. Both wooden and permanent (stone) triumphal gates were usually richly decorated with sculpture. These buildings were monuments to the military glory of the Russian people and largely contributed to the decorative design of the city.

Plan of the central part of St. Petersburg in the 18th century.

With the greatest clarity and completeness, the new qualities of Russian architecture of the 18th century. manifested themselves in the architecture of St. Petersburg. The new Russian capital was founded in 1703 and was built unusually quickly.

From an architectural point of view, St. Petersburg is of particular interest. It is the only capital city in Europe that emerged entirely in the 18th century. Its appearance vividly reflected not only the unique directions, styles and individual talents of the architects of the 18th century, but also the progressive principles of urban planning of that time, in particular planning. In addition to the brilliantly designed “three-beam” layout of the center of St. Petersburg, high urban planning art was manifested in the creation of complete ensembles and in the magnificent development of the embankments. From the very beginning, the indissoluble architectural and artistic unity of the city and its waterways represented one of the most important advantages and unique beauty of St. Petersburg. The formation of the architectural appearance of St. Petersburg in the first half of the 18th century. associated mainly with the activities of architects D. Trezzini, M. Zemtsov, I. Korobov and P. Eropkin.

Domenico Trezzini (c. 1670-1734) was one of those foreign architects who, having arrived in Russia at the invitation of Peter I, remained here for many years, or even until the end of their lives. The name Trezzini is associated with many buildings of early St. Petersburg; he owns “exemplary”, that is, standard designs of residential buildings, palaces, temples, and various civil structures.

Domenico Trezzini. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Leningrad. 1712-1733 View from the northwest.

Trezzini did not work alone. A group of Russian architects worked with him, whose role in the creation of a number of buildings was extremely responsible. Trezzini's best and most significant creation is the famous Peter and Paul Cathedral, built in 1712-1733. The construction is based on the plan of a three-nave basilica. The most remarkable part of the cathedral is its upward-facing bell tower. Just like Zarudny's Menshikov Tower in its original form, the bell tower of the Peter and Paul Cathedral is crowned with a high spire, topped with the figure of an angel. The proud, easy rise of the spire is prepared by all the proportions and architectural forms of the bell tower; a gradual transition from the bell tower itself to the “needle” of the cathedral was thought out. The bell tower of the Peter and Paul Cathedral was conceived and implemented as an architectural dominant in the ensemble of St. Petersburg under construction, as the personification of the greatness of the Russian state, which established its new capital on the shores of the Gulf of Finland.

Trezzini. The building of the Twelve Collegiums in Leningrad. Fragment of the facade.

In 1722-1733 Another well-known Trezzini building is being created - the building of the Twelve Colleges. Strongly elongated in length, the building has twelve sections, each of which is designed as a relatively small but independent house with its own ceiling, pediment and entrance. Trezzini’s favorite strict pilasters in this case are used to unite the two upper floors of the building and emphasize the measured, calm rhythm of the divisions of the facade. The proud, rapid rise of the bell tower of the Peter and Paul Fortress Cathedral and the calm length of the building of the Twelve Colleges - these beautiful architectural contrasts were realized by Trezzini with the impeccable tact of an outstanding master.

Most of Trezzini's works are characterized by restraint and even severity in architectural solution buildings. This is especially noticeable next to the decorative pomp and rich design of buildings of the mid-18th century.

Georg Mattarnovi, Gaetano Chiaveri, M. G. Zemtsov. Kunstkamera in Leningrad. 1718-1734 Facade.

The activities of Mikhail Grigoryevich Zemtsov (1686-1743), who initially worked for Trezzini and attracted the attention of Peter I with his talent, were varied. Zemtsov participated, apparently, in all of Trezzini’s major works. He completed the construction of the Kunstkamera building, begun by the architects Georg Johann Mattarnovi and Gaetano Chiaveri, built the churches of Simeon and Anna, Isaac of Dalmatia and a number of other buildings in St. Petersburg.

G. Mattarnovi, G. Chiaveri, M.G.3emtsov. Kunstkamera in Leningrad. Facade.

Peter I attached great importance to the regular development of the city. The famous French architect Jean Baptiste Leblond was invited to Russia to develop a master plan for St. Petersburg. However, the master plan of St. Petersburg drawn up by Leblon had a number of very significant shortcomings. The architect did not take into account the natural development of the city, and his plan suffered largely from abstraction. Leblon's project was only partially implemented in the layout of the streets of Vasilievsky Island. Russian architects made many significant adjustments to its layout of St. Petersburg.

A prominent urban planner of the early 18th century was the architect Pyotr Mikhailovich Eropkin (c. 1698-1740), who gave a remarkable solution to the three-ray layout of the Admiralty part of St. Petersburg (including Nevsky Prospekt). Carrying out a lot of work in the “Commission on St. Petersburg Construction” formed in 1737, Eropkin was in charge of the development of other areas of the city. His work ended in the most tragic way. The architect was associated with the Volynsky group, which opposed Biron. Among other prominent members of this group, Eropkin was arrested and executed in 1740.

Eropkin is known not only as a practicing architect, but also as a theorist. He translated the works of Palladio into Russian, and also began work on the scientific treatise “The Position of an Architectural Expedition.” The last work concerning the main issues of Russian architecture was not completed by him; after his execution, this work was completed by Zemtsov and I.K. Korobov (1700-1747), the creator of the first stone building of the Admiralty. Topped with a tall thin spire, echoing the spire of the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the Admiralty Tower, built by Korobov in 1732-1738, became one of the most important architectural landmarks of St. Petersburg.

Definition of the architectural style of the first half of the 18th century. usually causes a lot of controversy among researchers of Russian art. Indeed, the style of the first decades of the 18th century. was complex and often very contradictory. The Western European Baroque style, somewhat modified and more restrained in form, participated in its formation; The influence of Dutch architecture also had an effect. To one degree or another, the influence of the traditions of ancient Russian architecture also made itself felt. A distinctive feature of many of the first buildings of St. Petersburg was the harsh utilitarianism and simplicity of architectural forms. The unique originality of Russian architecture in the first decades of the 18th century. lies, however, not in the complex and sometimes contradictory interweaving of architectural styles, but primarily in the urban planning scope, in the life-affirming power and grandeur of the structures erected during this most important period for the Russian nation.

After the death of Peter I (1725), the extensive civil and industrial construction undertaken on his instructions faded into the background. A new period begins in the development of Russian architecture. The best forces of architects were now directed to palace construction, which assumed an extraordinary scale. From about the 1740s. A distinct Russian Baroque style is established.

In the mid-18th century, the broad career of Bartholomew Varfolomeevich Rastrelli (1700-1771), the son of the famous sculptor K.-B. Rastrelli. The work of Rastrelli the son belongs entirely to Russian art. His work reflected the increased power of the Russian Empire, the wealth of the highest court circles, who were the main customers of the magnificent palaces created by Rastrelli and the team he led.

Johann Braunstein. Hermitage Pavilion in Peterhof (Petrodvorets). 1721-1725

Rastrelli's activities in rebuilding the palace and park ensemble of Peterhof were of great importance. The site for the palace and an extensive garden and park ensemble, which later received the name Peterhof (now Petrodvorets), was planned in 1704 by Peter I himself. In 1714-1717. Monplaisir and stone were built Peterhof Palace based on designs by Andreas Schlüter. Subsequently, several architects were involved in the work, including Jean Baptiste Leblond, the main author of the layout of the park and fountains of Peterhof, and I. Braunstein, builder of the Marly and Hermitage pavilions.

From the very beginning, the Peterhof ensemble was conceived as one of the world's largest ensembles of garden structures, sculptures and fountains, rivaling Versailles. The design, magnificent in its integrity, united the Grand Cascade and the grandiose staircase descents framing it with the Large Grotto in the center and towering above the entire palace into one inextricable whole.

Without touching in this case on the complex issue of authorship and the history of construction, which was carried out after Leblon’s sudden death, it should be noted that in 1735 the installation of the sculptural group “Samson tearing the mouth of the lion”, central in its compositional role and ideological concept (the authorship has not been precisely established), which completed the first stage of creating the largest of the regular park ensembles of the 18th century.

In the 1740s. The second stage of construction began in Peterhof, when a grandiose reconstruction of the Great Peterhof Palace was undertaken by the architect Rastrelli. While maintaining some restraint in the design of the old Peterhof Palace, characteristic of the style of Peter the Great's time, Rastrelli nevertheless significantly enhanced its decorative design in the Baroque style. This was especially evident in the design of the left wing with the church and the right wing (the so-called Corps under the coat of arms) that were newly added to the palace. The final of the main stages of the construction of Peterhof dates back to the end of the 18th - the very beginning of the 19th century, when the architect A. N. Voronikhin and a whole galaxy of outstanding masters of Russian sculpture, including Kozlovsky, Martos, Shubin, Shchedrin, Prokofiev, were involved in the work.

In general, Rastrelli’s first projects, dating back to the 1730s, are still largely close to the style of Peter the Great’s time and do not amaze with that luxury

and pomp, which are manifested in his most famous creations - the Great (Catherine) Palace in Tsarskoye Selo (now the city of Pushkin), the Winter Palace and the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg.

V.V. Rastrelli. The Great (Catherine) Palace in Tsarskoe Selo (Pushkin). 1752-1756 View from the park.

Having started to create the Catherine Palace (1752-1756), Rastrelli did not rebuild it entirely. In the composition of his grandiose building, he skillfully included the already existing palace buildings of the architects Kvasov and Chevakinsky. Rastrelli combined these relatively small buildings, interconnected by one-story galleries, into one majestic building of a new palace, the facade of which reached three hundred meters in length. Low one-story galleries were built on and thereby raised to the overall height of the horizontal divisions of the palace; the old side buildings were included in the new building as protruding projections.

Both inside and outside Catherine Palace Rastrelli was distinguished by his exceptional richness of decorative design, inexhaustible invention and variety of motifs. The roof of the palace was gilded, and sculptural (also gilded) figures and decorative compositions rose above the balustrade surrounding it. The façade was decorated with mighty figures of Atlanteans and intricate stucco moldings depicting garlands of flowers. The white color of the columns stood out clearly against the blue color of the walls of the building.

The interior space of the Tsarskoye Selo Palace was designed by Rastrelli along the longitudinal axis. The numerous halls of the palace, intended for ceremonial receptions, formed a solemn, beautiful enfilade. The main color combination of interior decoration is gold and white. Abundant gold carvings, images of frolicking cupids, exquisite forms of cartouches and volutes - all this was reflected in the mirrors, and in the evenings, especially on the days of receptions and ceremonies, it was brightly lit by countless candles ( This palace of rare beauty was barbarically looted and set on fire by Nazi troops during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. Thanks to the efforts of masters of Soviet art, the Great Tsarskoye Selo Palace has now been restored, as far as possible.).

In 1754-1762 Rastrelli is building another large structure - Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, which became the basis of the future ensemble of Palace Square.

In contrast to the very elongated Tsarskoye Selo Palace, the Winter Palace is designed in the form of a huge closed rectangle. The main entrance to the palace at that time was located in the spacious internal front courtyard.

V.V. Rastrelli. Winter Palace in Leningrad. 1754-1762 View from Palace Square.

V.V. Rastrelli. Winter Palace in Leningrad. Facade from Palace Square. Fragment.

Considering the location of the Winter Palace, Rastrelli designed the facades of the building differently. Thus, the façade facing south onto the subsequently formed Palace Square, designed with a strong plastic accentuation of the central part (where the main entrance to the courtyard is located). On the contrary, the facade of the Winter Palace, facing the Neva, is maintained in a calmer rhythm of volumes and colonnade, thanks to which the length of the building is better perceived.

V.V. Rastrelli. Cathedral of the Smolny Monastery in Leningrad. Fragment of the western facade.

V.V. Rastrelli. Cathedral of the Smolny Monastery in Leningrad. Started in 1748. View from the west.

Rastrelli's activities were mainly aimed at creating palace buildings. But even in church architecture he left an extremely valuable work - the design of the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg. The construction of the Smolny Monastery, which began in 1748, lasted for many decades and was completed by the architect V. P. Stasov in the first third of the 19th century. In addition, such an important part of the entire ensemble as the nine-tiered bell tower of the cathedral was never realized. In the composition of the five-domed cathedral and a number of general principles for the design of the ensemble of the monastery, Rastrelli directly proceeded from the traditions of ancient Russian architecture. At the same time, we see here the characteristic features of the architecture of the mid-18th century: the splendor of architectural forms, the inexhaustible richness of decor.

Among Rastrelli’s outstanding creations are the wonderful Stroganov Palace in St. Petersburg (1750-1754), St. Andrew’s Cathedral in Kyiv, the Resurrection Cathedral of the New Jerusalem Monastery near Moscow, rebuilt according to his design, the wooden two-story Annenhof Palace in Moscow, which has not survived to this day, and others.

If Rastrelli's activities took place mainly in St. Petersburg, then another outstanding Russian architect, Korobov's student Dmitry Vasilyevich Ukhtomsky (1719-1775), lived and worked in Moscow. Two remarkable monuments of Russian architecture of the mid-18th century are associated with his name: the bell tower of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra (1740-1770) and the stone Red Gate in Moscow (1753-1757).

By the nature of his work, Ukhtomsky is quite close to Rastrelli. Both the bell tower of the Lavra and the triumphal gates are rich in external design, monumental and festive. Ukhtomsky’s valuable quality is his desire to develop ensemble solutions. And although his most significant plans were not realized (the project of the ensemble of the Invalid and Hospital Houses in Moscow), the progressive trends in Ukhtomsky’s work were picked up and developed by his great students - Bazhenov and Kazakov.

A prominent place in the architecture of this period was occupied by the work of Savva Ivanovich Chevakinsky (1713-1774/80). A student and successor of Korobov, Chevakinsky participated in the development and implementation of a number of architectural projects in St. Petersburg and Tsarskoe Selo. Chevakinsky's talent was especially fully manifested in the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral he created (St. Petersburg, 1753 - 1762). The slender four-tiered bell tower of the cathedral is wonderfully designed, enchanting with its festive elegance and impeccable proportions.

Second half of the 18th century. marks a new stage in the history of architecture. Just like other types of art, Russian architecture testifies to the strengthening of the Russian state and the growth of culture, and reflects a new, more elevated idea of ​​​​man. The ideas of citizenship proclaimed by the Enlightenment, the ideas of an ideal noble state built on reasonable principles find a unique expression in the aesthetics of classicism of the 18th century, and are reflected in increasingly clear, classically restrained forms of architecture.

Since the 18th century. and until the mid-19th century, Russian architecture occupied one of the leading places in world architecture. Moscow, St. Petersburg and a number of other Russian cities are enriched at this time with first-class ensembles.

The formation of early Russian classicism in architecture is inextricably linked with the names of A. F. Kokorinov, Wallen Delamot, A. Rinaldi, Yu. M. Felten.

Alexander Filippovich Kokorinov (1726-1772) was among the direct assistants of one of the most prominent Russian architects of the mid-18th century. Ukhtomsky. As the latest research shows, young Kokorinov built a palace ensemble in Petrovsky-Razumovsky (1752-1753), which has survived to this day modified and rebuilt. From the point of view of architectural style, this ensemble was undoubtedly close to the magnificent palace buildings of the mid-18th century, erected by Rastrelli and Ukhtomsky. New, foreshadowing the style of Russian classicism, was, in particular, the use of the severe Doric order in the design of the entrance gates of Razumovsky's palace.

Wallen Delamoth. Small Hermitage in Leningrad. 1764-1767

Around 1760, Kokorinov began many years of joint work with Wallen Delamoth (1729-1800), who came to Russia. Originally from France, Delamote came from a family of famous architects, the Blondels. The name of Wallen Delamoth is associated with such significant buildings in St. Petersburg as the Great Gostiny Dvor (1761 - 1785), the plan of which was developed by Rastrelli, and the Small Hermitage (1764-1767). The Delamot building, known as New Holland- the building of the Admiralty warehouses, where special attention is drawn to the arch spanning the canal, made of simple dark red brick with decorative white stone.

Wallen Delamoth. The central part of the main facade of the Academy of Arts in Leningrad. 1764-1788

A.F. Kokorinov and Wallen Delamoth. Academy of Arts in Leningrad. 1764-1767 View from the Neva.

Wallen Delamoth. "New Holland" in Leningrad. 1770-1779 Arch.

Wallen Delamoth participated in the creation of one of the most unique structures of the 18th century. - Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg (1764-1788). The austere, monumental building of the Academy, built on Vasilievsky Island, acquired important significance in the city ensemble. The main facade facing the Neva is designed majestically and calmly. The general design of this building indicates the predominance of the style of early classicism over baroque elements.

What is most striking is the plan of this structure, which was apparently mainly developed by Kokorinov. Behind the outwardly calm facades of the building, which occupies an entire city block, hides a complex internal system of educational, residential and utility rooms, stairs and corridors, courtyards and passages. Particularly noteworthy is the layout of the Academy's courtyards, which included one huge round courtyard in the center and four smaller courtyards, rectangular in plan, with two corners rounded in each.

A. F. Kokorinov, Wallen Delamoth. Academy of Arts in Leningrad. Plan.

A building close to the art of early classicism is the Marble Palace (1768-1785). Its author was the Yang architect Antonio Rinaldi (c. 1710-1794), who was invited to Russia. In Rinaldi's earlier buildings, the features of the late Baroque and Rococo style were clearly visible (the latter is especially noticeable in the refined decoration of the apartments of the Chinese Palace in Oranienbaum).

Along with large palace and park ensembles In Russia, estate architecture is becoming more and more widely developed. Particularly active construction of estates began in the second half of the 18th century, when Peter III issued a decree exempting nobles from compulsory public service. The Russian nobles, who had dispersed to their ancestral and newly acquired estates, began to intensively build and improve their landscaping, inviting the most prominent architects for this, as well as making extensive use of the labor of talented serf architects. Estate construction reached its greatest flourishing at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century.

Lattice of the Summer Garden in Leningrad. 1773-1784 Attributed to Yu. M. Felten.

The master of early classicism was Yuri Matveevich Felten (1730-1801), one of the creators of the remarkable Neva embankments associated with the implementation of urban planning work in the 1760-1770s. The construction of the lattice of the Summer Garden, in the design of which Felten participated, is also closely connected with the ensemble of Neva embankments. Among the buildings of Velten, the building of the Old Hermitage should be mentioned.

Laundry Bridge over the Fontanka River in Leningrad. 1780s

In the second half of the 18th century. one of the greatest Russian architects, Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov (1738-1799), lived and worked. Bazhenov was born into the family of a sexton near Moscow, near Maloyaroslavets. At the age of fifteen, Bazhenov was part of a team of painters during the construction of one of the palaces, where he was noticed by the architect Ukhtomsky, who accepted the gifted young man into his “architectural team.” After the organization of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg, Bazhenov was sent there from Moscow, where he studied at the gymnasium at Moscow University. In 1760, Bazhenov went abroad as a pensioner of the Academy, to France and Italy. The outstanding natural talent of the young architect already in those years received high recognition. Twenty-eight-year-old Bazhenov came from abroad with the title of professor of the Roman Academy and the title of academician of the Florence and Bologna Academies.

Bazhenov’s exceptional talent as an architect and his great creative scope were especially clearly manifested in the project of the Kremlin Palace in Moscow, on which he began working in 1767, actually planning the creation of a new Kremlin ensemble.

V.I. Bazhenov. Plan of the Kremlin Palace in Moscow.

According to Bazhenov’s project, the Kremlin was to become, in the full sense of the word, the new center of the ancient Russian capital, and moreover, it would be most directly connected with the city. Based on this project, Bazhenov even intended to tear down part of the Kremlin wall from the Moscow River and Red Square. Thus, the newly created ensemble of several squares in the Kremlin and, first of all, the new Kremlin Palace would no longer be separated from the city.

The façade of Bazhenov’s Kremlin Palace was supposed to be facing the Moscow River, to which ceremonial staircase descents, decorated with monumental and decorative sculpture, led from above, from the Kremlin hill.

The palace building was designed to have four floors, with the first two floors having service purposes, and the third and fourth floors housing the palace apartments themselves with large double-height halls.

V.I. Bazhenov. Project of the Grand Kremlin Palace in Moscow. Incision.

In the architectural design of the Kremlin Palace, new squares, as well as the most significant interior spaces, an exceptionally large role was given to colonnades (mainly of the Ionic and Corinthian orders). In particular, a whole system of colonnades surrounded the main square in the Kremlin designed by Bazhenov. The architect intended to surround this square, which had an oval shape, with buildings with strongly protruding basement parts, forming, as it were, stepped stands to accommodate the people.

V. I. Bazhenov. Model of the Kremlin Palace. Fragment of the main facade. 1769-1772 Moscow, Museum of Architecture.

Extensive preparatory work began; in a specially built house, a wonderful (preserved to this day) model of the future structure was made; Bazhenov carefully developed and designed the interior decoration and decoration of the palace...

The unsuspecting architect was in for a cruel blow: as it turned out later, Catherine II did not intend to complete this grandiose construction; she started it mainly with the aim of demonstrating the power and wealth of the state during the Russian-Turkish war. Already in 1775, construction stopped completely.

In subsequent years, Bazhenov’s largest work was the design and construction of an ensemble in Tsaritsyn near Moscow, which was supposed to be the summer residence of Catherine II. The ensemble in Tsaritsyn is a country estate with an asymmetrical arrangement of buildings, executed in a distinctive style, sometimes called “Russian Gothic,” but to a certain extent based on the use of motifs from Russian architecture of the 17th century.

It is in the traditions of ancient Russian architecture that Bazhenov combines the red brick walls of Tsaritsyn buildings with details made of white stone.

The surviving Bazhenov buildings in Tsaritsyn - the Opera House, the Figured Gate, the bridge across the road - give only a partial idea of ​​the general plan. Not only was Bazhenov’s project not implemented, but even the palace he had almost completed was rejected by the visiting empress and, on her orders, demolished.

V. I. Bazhenov. Pavilions of the Mikhailovsky (Engineering) Castle in Leningrad. 1797-1800

V. I. Bazhenov. Mikhailovsky (Engineering) Castle in Leningrad. 1797-1800 Northern façade.

Bazhenov paid tribute to the emerging pre-romantic tendencies in the project of the Mikhailovsky (Engineering) Castle, which, with some changes, was carried out by the architect V. F. Brenna. Built by order of Paul I in St. Petersburg, Mikhailovsky Castle (1797-1800) was at that time a structure surrounded, like a fortress, by ditches; drawbridges were thrown across them. The tectonic clarity of the general architectural design and at the same time the complexity of the layout were combined here in a unique way.

In most of his projects and structures, Bazhenov acted as the greatest master of early Russian classicism. A remarkable creation of Bazhenov is the Pashkov House in Moscow (now the old building of the State Library named after V. I. Lenin). This building was built in 1784-1787. A palace-type structure, the Pashkov House (named after the first owner) turned out to be so perfect that both from the point of view of the urban ensemble and in terms of its high artistic merits, it took one of the first places among the monuments of Russian architecture.

V. I. Bazhenov. House of P.E. Pashkov in Moscow. 1784-1787 Main facade.

The main entrance to the building was located from the front yard, where several service buildings of the palace-estate were located. Situated on a hill rising from Mokhovaya Street, Pashkov’s house faces its main façade towards the Kremlin. The main architectural mass of the palace is its central three-story building, topped with a light belvedere. There are two side two-story buildings on both sides of the building. The central building of Pashkov's house is decorated with a Corinthian order colonnade, connecting the second and third floors. The side pavilions have smooth columns of the Ionic order. The subtle thoughtfulness of the overall composition and all the details gives this structure extraordinary lightness and at the same time significance and monumentality. The true harmony of the whole, the grace of the elaboration of details eloquently testify to the genius of its creator.

Another great Russian architect who worked at one time with Bazhenov was Matvey Fedorovich Kazakov (1738-1812). A native of Moscow, Kazakov linked his creative activity even more closely than Bazhenov with Moscow architecture. Having entered the Ukhtomsky school at the age of thirteen, Kazakov learned the art of architecture in practice. He was neither at the Academy of Arts nor abroad. From the first half of the 1760s. young Kazakov was already working in Tver, where a number of buildings for both residential and public purposes were built according to his design.

In 1767, Kazakov was invited by Bazhenov as his direct assistant to design the ensemble of the new Kremlin Palace.

M.F.Kazakov.Senate in the Moscow Kremlin. Plan.

M. F. Kazakov. Senate in the Moscow Kremlin. 1776-1787 Main facade.

One of the earliest and at the same time the most significant and famous buildings of Kazakov is the Senate building in Moscow (1776-1787). The Senate building (currently the Supreme Soviet of the USSR is located here) is located inside the Kremlin not far from the Arsenal. Triangular in plan (with courtyards), one of its facades faces Red Square. The central compositional unit of the building is the Senate hall, which has a huge domed ceiling for that time, the diameter of which reaches almost 25 m. The relatively modest design of the building from the outside is contrasted with the magnificent design of the round main hall, which has three tiers of windows, a Corinthian order colonnade, a coffered dome and a rich stucco.

The next widely known creation of Kazakov is the building of Moscow University (1786-1793). This time, Kazakov turned to the common plan of a city estate in the form of the letter P. In the center of the building there is an assembly hall in the shape of a semi-rotunda with a domed ceiling. The original appearance of the university, built by Kazakov, differs significantly from the external design given to it by D.I. Gilardi, who restored the university after the fire of Moscow in 1812. The Doric colonnade, reliefs and pediment above the portico, aedicules at the ends of the side wings, etc. - all this was not in Kazakov’s building. It looked taller and less spread out along the façade. The main facade of the university in the 18th century. had a more slender and lighter colonnade of the portico (Ionic order), the walls of the building were divided by blades and panels, the ends of the side wings of the building had Ionic porticoes with four pilasters and a pediment.

Just like Bazhenov, Kazakov sometimes turned to architectural traditions in his work Ancient Rus', for example in the Petrovsky Palace, built in 1775-1782. Jug-shaped columns, arches, window decorations, hanging weights, etc., together with red brick walls and white stone decorations, clearly echoed pre-Petrine architecture.

However, most of Kazakov’s church buildings - the Church of Philip Metropolitan, the Church of the Ascension on Gorokhovskaya Street (now Kazakova Street) in Moscow, the church-mausoleum of Baryshnikov (in the village of Nikolo-Pogoreloye, Smolensk region) - were designed not so much in terms of ancient Russian churches, but in the spirit classically torus

Development architecture XVIII century in Russia was determined by socio-economic and political conditions, the level of architectural and engineering thought, the experience of architects and builders, the tastes and needs of the royal family, the nobility and wealthy merchants.

At the beginning of the 18th century. a purposeful, creative rethinking and practical use of the heritage of European art begins. As a result, in as soon as possible The foundations of a new architectural school were laid in the country, representing a fusion of Russian and European urban planning traditions. Numerous manuals on fortification and fortress construction were published, translated into Russian. Thanks to the development of standard designs for residential and public buildings, in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. manufactories, shipyards, educational institutions, and theaters were built. The construction of churches, cathedrals, palaces continued, embankments, canals, and bridges were built.

The most important attribute of the architecture of this time was order, the use of which made it possible to create fundamentally new monumental public buildings.

Peter I introduced the most severe urban planning discipline. He determined the standards for the houses being built in the capital: two-story stone ones for “eminent” citizens and wooden ones for the “mean” and “prosperous”. During the war with Sweden, Peter issued a decree prohibiting the construction of stone buildings outside St. Petersburg, which significantly complicated construction in the provinces.

At the beginning of the 18th century. foreign Italian architects worked in Russia Domenico Andrea Trezzini (c. 1670-1734), German Andreas Schlüter (1660-1714) etc. Their responsibilities included training Russian specialists in their skills. The Manifesto of Peter I of April 16, 1702 guaranteed them and specialists of other professions who came to Russia safety during the journey, freedom of religion, and the right to freely return to their homeland.

The architecture of modern times was most fully embodied in the construction of St. Petersburg, founded in 1703. Since 1712, the city became the capital of Russia. In urban planning and architectural forms new capital the ideas of the greatness of the state, Peter's reforms, and the formation of secular culture were embodied. The construction of the new capital began with the Peter and Paul Fortress - an “earthen fortification” founded on May 16, 1703 on Hare Island at the mouth of the Neva. In 1704, a shipbuilding shipyard, the Admiralty, began to be built, around which settlements of shipbuilders and sailors arose.

The construction of St. Petersburg was led by the Office of City Affairs, established in 1706. Since 1709, it was transformed into the Office of Buildings, the main function of which was to control the construction of the capital and the activities of foreign architects.

In 1710, according to the project of D. Trezzini, the construction of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery began, to which a road was laid - the future Nevsky Prospekt. Under his leadership, the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the building of the Twelve Colleges (with the participation of M. G. Zemtsov), Gostiny Dvor, Summer Palace Peter (together with A. Schlüter) and others. The city was decorated with palaces that belonged to A. D. Menshikov, A. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky and other nobles. In 1711 The first Winter Palace was built, distinguished by the simplicity and modesty of the decoration of its facades and interiors.

Since 1714, suburban houses were built in the St. Petersburg suburbs of Peterhof, Strelna, and Oranienbaum. royal palaces and the estates of Peter’s close associates - P. M. Bestuzhev - Ryumin, F. A. Golitsyn, G. I. Golovkin and others.

The architectural ensemble of Peterhof, which consisted of the Great Peter's Palace and parks decorated with fountains and sculpture, was particularly brilliant. The construction of the sovereign's summer residence was led in different years by J.-B. Leblon (author of the General Plan of St. Petersburg), I. Braunstein, N. Michetti. Russian and foreign sculptors, painters, and masters of various specialties took part in the work. The construction of Peterhof was completed in 1725. Subsequently, the building of the Petrovsky Palace was rebuilt several times.

The founding of St. Petersburg and the transfer of the capital to it determined the entire further course Russian history: the country’s culture was destined to be distributed along two parallel channels - Moscow and St. Petersburg. From that time on, either open or secret rivalry began between the two capitals of Russia - St. Petersburg and Moscow.

At the beginning of the 18th century. there have been noticeable changes in architectural appearance Moscow - there has been a desire for rational planning (“regularity”), uniformity of style, the same height of buildings, width of streets, etc. Industrial, administrative, and educational buildings were built here, and new temples and palaces of the nobility were built. At the beginning of the 18th century. The Cloth Dvor manufactory and the Main Pharmacy building were built (it later became the first premises of the first Russian university). After the fire in the Kremlin in 1701, Peter ordered the construction of the Arsenal (“zeichgauz” - its construction was completed in 1732). The building of the country's first public theater (Comedy Hall) was built at the Nikolsky Gate. The construction of the Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge, 140 meters long and 22 meters wide, was completed. H. Konrad, M. Choglokov, D. Ivanov and other architects and engineers took part in the construction of these structures.

The construction of palaces that belonged to the nobles of Peter the Great's time also continued. In Lefortovo, according to the design of D.V. Aksamitov, the palace of Peter I’s associate A.D. Menshikov was erected. By his order, I.P. Zarudny built the Church of the Archangel Michael (“Menshikov Tower”) and others.

Among the original architectural structures of the Peter the Great era are the triumphal gates. They were erected along the route of royalty, first in Moscow, and then in St. Petersburg and other cities of Russia. The triumphal gates were installed in honor of the capture of Azov, the victory at Poltava, the conclusion of the Nystadt Peace, etc.

Military-defensive tasks required the reconstruction of old and the foundation of new fortified cities. As a result, the fortresses of Narva, Riga, Revel, Voronezh, Taganrog, Solovki, Koporye, Yam and others were founded, restored or updated. The ancient Russian fortress Oreshek, after its return during the Northern War, was reconstructed and renamed Shlisselburg.

Stone buildings were also built in Tobolsk, which since 1708 became the center of the Siberian province. The architect, cartographer and geographer S. U. Remezov (1642-1720) played a significant role in its construction. According to his designs, the Prikaz Chamber and the Gostiny Dvor were built on the territory of the Tobolsk Kremlin.

In 1714, on the island of Kizhi in Lake Onega, a wooden temple was built at the expense of local peasants in memory of the Poltava victory - the Church of the Transfiguration. This unique structure, 35 m high, decorated with 22 chapters, distinguished by the perfection of its forms, was made by Russian craftsmen without a single nail. The Transfiguration Church in Kizhi can be considered one of the highest manifestations of Russian carpentry art.

After the death of the first Russian emperor in 1725, the era of palace coups began. The changes that took place in the political life of the country during this period were more noticeable than the changes in cultural life. Thus, in the development of architecture the line of the previous period was noticeably traced. The leading architect of this time was Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700-1771). The flowering of the artistic style is associated with his name baroque(from Italian - “bizarre”, “strange”). The Baroque was characterized by solemnity, splendor of forms, elegance and whimsical decor, contrasting colors (blue or crimson with white), an abundance of gilding, connection with the surrounding area and landscape. Rastrelli's main buildings were the Winter Palace, the Smolny Monastery Cathedral in St. Petersburg, St. Andrew's Church in Kyiv, the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, etc.

Rastrelli's merit lies in the fact that his numerous students, having dispersed throughout Russia, built the so-called “Rastrelli” churches, palaces, and estates in the provinces. One of them was Savva Ivanovich Chevakinsky (1713-1774). Under his leadership in St. Petersburg

St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral, the palaces of the Sheremetevs, I. I. Shuvalov and others were built.

Great contribution to the development of domestic architecture of the 30-50s. XVIII was contributed by “pensioners” who studied architecture at the state account in Europe. Among them are M. G. Zemtsov, P. M. Eropkin, I. K. Korobov, I. A. Mordvinov, I. F. Michurin. In St. Petersburg and Moscow they built churches, palaces, theaters, etc. The fate of most of them was difficult, and in some cases tragic. Thus, under Anna Ioannovna, the first Russian architectural theorist was executed for participation in the “Volynsky case” Pyotr Mikhailovich Eropkin (1698-1740).

In the middle of the 18th century, following Europe, the style developed in Russian art Rococo (or Rocaille - from fr. "sink"). The architecture of this style was characterized by a mannered, sophisticated, emphatically elegant and sophisticated appearance. In the decoration of premises, an ornamental motif in the form of a stylized shell was often used. Carved and stucco patterns, curls, masks, cupids' heads, etc. were also widely used in decoration. Painting panels, reliefs, mirrors, and figurines played an important role in the decoration of the premises. Furnishings were given whimsically curved shapes. Light, iridescent tones predominated.

In this article I will talk about masterpieces of foreign architecture of the 18th century.

You probably know the names of such wonderful masters as V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, A.F. Kokorinov. These people devoted their entire lives to architecture and created unique works of art of the 18th century. Without a doubt, the creations of V.I. Bazhenova, F.I. Kazakova, A.F. Kokorinov is a treasure trove of world architecture. But in this article I would like to talk about the masterpieces of foreign architecture of the 18th century.

The 18th century is the century of Enlightenment, the century of Voltaire and D. Diderot, J.-J. Rousseau and C. Montesquieu. In the 18th century, two completely new styles appeared in art - Rococo and Baroque. The ROCOCO style originated in France at the beginning of the 18th century .Translated from French, Rococo means “STONE” or “SHELL.” Characteristic features of Rococo include sophistication, a large number of different ornaments, withdrawal from the real world, immersion in fantasy, and a tendency to depict mythological subjects.

ITALY is considered the birthplace of the BAROQUE style. This style appeared at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries. Translated from Italian, baroque means “STRANGE”, “BRANDS”. Baroque is characterized by a penchant for excess, contrast, a desire for splendor and grandeur, the unification of reality and illusion. Baroque opposes classicism and rationalism.

The largest architects of the 18th century are considered to be A. Rinaldi, C. I. Rossi, B. F. Rastrelli, D. Trezzini.

ITALIAN and ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE of the 18th century.

Baroque appeared in Italy after the Renaissance. Italian Baroque was characterized by the fluidity of complex forms, an abundance of sculptures on the facades of buildings, and the complexity of domed forms. Baroque prevailed in art only until the middle of the 18th century. Later, this bizarre style was replaced by a more rational CLASSICISM. The largest Italian F. Yuvara is considered an architect and representative of the late Baroque. It was he who created the famous Church of Superga and Palazzo Madama in Turin. Later he was invited to work in Portugal. In Lisbon, F. Yuvara built the Ajuda Palace. The architect’s last works were the Oriental (Royal) Palace in Madrid ( official residence of the Spanish kings) and the country summer residence of the Spanish King Philip V - La Granja Palace. Another Italian architect L. Vanvitelli created famous palace in Caserta. This palace was built in 1752 in the neoclassical style. The architect N. Salvi created famous fountain di Trevi is the largest in Rome. The fountain was built from 1732 to 1762. The style of the fountain is Baroque. The Italian architect A. Galilei built the Church of San Giovanni Lateran Cathedral in Rome.

In England, Baroque did not become as widespread as in Italy. The key figures of Baroque architecture in England were J. Vanbrugh and N. Hawksmoor. The main project of J. Vanbrugh-Seaton Delaval, and the pinnacle of N. Hawksmoor's creativity was the Spitalfields Church of Christ.

FRENCH and PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE OF THE 18TH CENTURY.

The Rococo style appeared in France during the time of Philippe d'Orléans. But the greatest flowering of Rococo came during the reign of King Louis XV. The most prominent architects of that time were J. A. Gabriel and J. J. Soufflot. The most famous creation of the First Royal Architect Gabriel is considered to be the Square Concorde in Paris. The same square was named after Louis XV. J.-J. Soufflot built the Lyon Opera, the Parisian Pantheon and the treasury of Notre Dame Cathedral. A striking example of the Rococo Hotel Soubise in Paris. The interior of the hotel was created by the architect J. Boffrand in 1704- 1705 In the 1780s CLASSICISM became widespread in France. In the middle of the 18th century, theater mania gripped Paris. Between 1779-1782. In Paris, the ODEON theater was built according to the design of the architects C. de Wailly and M.-J. Peyre. The project of a lifetime by the French architect C. N. Ledoux is a dream city, his ideal city of Chaux.

In Portugal, Rococo appeared around 1726. One of the most significant buildings in the Portuguese Rococo style is the Palace of Queluz, the so-called “Portuguese Versailles.” The building of the Lisbon Theater of São Carlos was built in 1793. In 1750, the construction of the Necessidades Palace was completed.

GERMAN and AUSTRIAN ARCHITECTURE OF THE 18TH CENTURY.

Baroque in German architecture began to develop a hundred years later than in Italy and France. Since 1725, the French architect F. Cuvillier worked in Munich. The architect worked in the style of a blooming, lush and lush Rococo. He created the Amalienburg Pavilion in Nymphenburg. The largest architect in Germany , representative of the Baroque and Rococo I.B. Neumann created such masterpieces as the Basilica in Gosweinstein, the residence palace in Wurzburg, the Catholic Church in Gaibach. The founder of the Dresden Baroque M.D. Peppelman built it in 1711-1722. Zwinger Palace (“Citadel”). Master of Rococo interiors, German architect of the 18th century G. Knobelsdorff built the building opera house in Berlin (1750). But his main creation is the one-story palace of Sans Souci (palace of the Prussian king Frederick II the Great) in the royal garden of Potsdam (1745-1747)

The Austrian architect I. B. Fischer von Erlach, the founder of the Habsburg Baroque, worked for two countries: Germany and Austria. Fischer’s prominent projects were the Schönbrunn Palace, the Catholic Church of Karlskirche and the Winter Palace of Eugene of Savoy. Fischer’s younger contemporary was the Austrian architect I. L. von Hildebrandt , who worked in Vienna and Salzburg. His main buildings are Mirabell Castle, Belvedere Palace, Vienna Palace of Eugene of Savoy.

World artistic culture and art are beautiful and multifaceted. They always fascinate and amaze, with the same force and at all times, be it antiquity or pop art.

A.I.Venediktov

The most significant phenomena of English architecture of the period under review date back to the last thirty years of the 17th century. The successor to the classic of English architecture, Inigo Jones, was Christopher Wren (1632-1723), who remained a leading master of English architecture throughout the first quarter of the 18th century.

Ren received a very broad education: before he turned entirely to architecture, he studied mathematics and astronomy. Having made a trip to France in 1665, he met Jules Hardouin-Mansart and other French architects and their works, as well as Bernini, who brought the Louvre project to Paris.

After the “Great Fire” of 1666, which destroyed most of London, Wren created a project for a radical redevelopment of the city, which, however, was rejected by the reactionary authorities. At the same time, Wren received the largest order for the construction of the new Cathedral of St. Paul and to draw up designs for one hundred burnt parish churches, of which he built more than fifty.

Cathedral of St. St. Paul's in London, built by Wren over thirty-six years (1675-1710), became the greatest religious building of the Protestant world (it surpasses the Cologne Cathedral in length, the height of the dome part - the Florentine Cathedral of Sanga Maria del Fiore). Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Peter's, built by many architects over more than a century and a half, was, as it were, deliberately contrasted with the London Protestant Cathedral, built by one master in one construction period, in just three and a half decades. The first project drawn up by Wren with a centric plan in the form of an equilateral cross with a vestibule was rejected by the conservative clergy. The second, completed project had a more traditional elongated shape with a main room divided by pillars and arches into three naves and a spacious under-dome space at the intersection of the naves with the transept.

Ren's mathematical knowledge came in handy in the difficult task of constructing a dome, which he solved brilliantly, with subtle and deep calculations. The design of the triple dome resting on eight pillars is complex and unusual: above the hemispherical inner brick shell there is a brick truncated cone, which carries the lantern and cross crowning the cathedral, as well as a third, wooden, lead-covered outer shell of the dome.

The appearance of the cathedral is spectacular. Two flights of wide steps lead from the west to six pairs of Corinthian columns of the entrance portico, above which there are four more pairs of columns with composite capitals, bearing a pediment with a sculptural group in the tympanum. More modest semicircular porticoes are placed at both ends of the transept. On the sides of the main façade, slender towers were erected (one for bells, the other for clocks), behind them, above the central cross of the cathedral, rises a huge, majestic dome. The drum of the dome, surrounded by columns, seems especially powerful because every fourth intercolumnium of the colonnade (the so-called Stone Gallery) is laid with stone. Above the hemisphere of the dome itself, the second, so-called Golden Gallery forms a circuit around a lantern with a cross. The towering group of domes and towers overlooking London is undoubtedly the most successful part of the cathedral, the main body of which was difficult to perceive in its entirety as it remained hidden by the clutter of urban development (heavily damaged by bombing during the Second World War).

Ren's creative individuality is revealed no less clearly in his own works. works, such as London parish churches. The variety and wit of the square, rectangular, oval plans of these buildings, usually small sizes, the very configuration of which was often explained by the masterful use of cramped, inconvenient sites allocated for their construction. The architecture of the churches themselves and their bell towers is extremely diverse, sometimes close in form to Gothic, sometimes strictly classical. It is enough to name the domed church of St. Stephen (1672-1679), original in the composition of its interior space, or the church of St. Mary le Bow (1671-1680) with its slender bell tower, remarkable for the beauty of its silhouette.

Of Wren's civil works one of the most brilliant is the new parts of Hampton Court Palace. In 1689-1694. they built buildings around the so-called courtyard with a fountain and a façade facing the park. In this original work, the architect showed high skill, strict taste and the ability to effectively use materials - brick and white Portland stone.

A prolific craftsman, Ren built more than just palaces and churches. He finally developed the plan for Greenwich Hospital (the original plan of which, apparently, belongs to Inigo Jones), and also built another hospital in Chelsea. He built the Temple district in London and built the town hall in Windsor. In Cambridge, he owns the building of the library of Trinity College (Trinity College), the prototype of which was the library of St. Stamp in Venice. In Oxford, where Wren taught astronomy in his youth, he built the so-called Sheldon Theater - a large round room for lectures and reports, which uses architectural motifs from the ancient Roman Theater of Marcellus; there he built the library at Queens College and the courtyard at Trinity College. The motifs of Venetian and Roman architecture used in these buildings received an original interpretation from Wren and went down in the history of English architecture as the creation of a national genius.

In residential country and city houses at this time, a type of brick building with white stone trim was created, which became a model for later English construction. Examples include the estates attributed to Wren at Groombridge Place in Kent and Swan House in Chichester.

Unlike Inigo Jones, Wren managed to realize almost all of his plans during his long and fruitful career. As a true humanist, Ren worked for education and the people; he built not only churches, but also hospitals, libraries, not only palaces, but also modest residential buildings. Wren followed the path indicated by Jones, but, unlike Jones, who absorbed the spirit of the Renaissance in Italy, the rational principle was more clearly expressed in the classicism of Wren, who survived the era of Puritanism.

In English architecture of the 18th century. The newly awakened passion for the work of Palladio was of great importance. By 1742, three editions of Palladio's architectural treatise had already been published. Since the middle of the century, the publication of independent research on ancient architecture. Robert Wood in 1753-1757 published a book devoted to the ruins of Palmyra and Baalbek, Robert Adam published sketches and measurements of Diocletian's palace in Split in Dalmatia in 1764. All these publications contributed to the development of architectural theory and influenced the architectural practice of that time. New ideas were reflected in major urban planning events, for example, in the planning and development of the city of Bath (1725-1780), whose areas represent the most complete classicist ensembles in England. Architects of the 18th century were, in most cases, professionals and theorists.

John Vanbrugh (1664-1726) occupies an intermediate position between the multi-talented and educated masters of the 17th century and the narrow specialists of the 18th century. A brilliant officer, a court wit, a fashionable playwright, he remained a gifted amateur in architecture.

His main and largest works were built in the first years of the 18th century. palaces of Howard (1699-1712) and Blenheim (1705-1724).

Already in the first of them, trying to combine the Versailles scale with English comfort, he amazed his contemporaries primarily with the size of his building, the length of which was 200 m, the depth was almost 130 m, the height of the central dome exceeded 70 m. In the even more grandiose Blenheim Palace , built for the famous commander Duke of Marlborough (259 X 155 m), the architect tried to improve the somewhat awkward plan of the first building. Observing strict symmetry, he placed two more courtyards on both sides of the huge courtyard, which are connected to the main building by galleries decorated with a colonnade. In the external architecture of Blenheim Palace, neither the heavy portico of the main entrance, nor the triumphal arch of the park façade, nor the angular, seemingly built-on towers please the eye: the forms here are heavy and rough. The interior of the palace is uncomfortable and uncomfortable. The desire for strict pomp characteristic of classicism is rather mechanically combined in Vanbrugh with a superficial pomp dating back to the Baroque. In his architecture, as one of his contemporaries put it, “heavy in form and light in essence,” it is not difficult to detect obvious signs of eclecticism.

Nicholas Hawksmoor (1661-1736) was a more modest but more worthy successor to Wren. He led the construction of London churches, of which the most interesting is the Church of St. Mary Wulnos (1716-1719) with a facade decorated with rustication and a rectangular bell tower surrounded by columns, completed by two turrets with a balustrade. Hawksmoor worked after his teacher in Oxford, where he built a new building of Queens College with a monumental courtyard facade and a distinctive entrance (1710-1719). Finally, during Wren’s lifetime and after his death, Hawksmoor in 1705-1715. continued construction of Greenwich Hospital. Situated on the banks of the Thames, this one of the most significant monuments of English architecture both in size and artistic merit took its final form under Hawksmoor.

The large hospital complex, where the naval school is now located, consists of four buildings forming rectangular courtyards with a spacious area between the front buildings, porticoes of the facades facing the river. Wide steps, flanked by majestic domed buildings, lead to a second square between a second pair of courtyards. Hawksmoor worthily completed the construction begun by Jones and continued by Wren.

William Kent (1684-1748) was the most prominent English Palladian of the first half of the 18th century. Together with Lord Burlington, who fancied himself an architect, he designed and built a villa in Chiswick (1729), the most successful of the many English versions of Palladian Villa Rotunda. Kent felt more free during the construction of Holkham Hall Castle (1734), where four wings (with a chapel, library, kitchen and guest rooms) organically connected to the central building open onto the surrounding park. Kent's merits are especially great in landscape gardening, where he is known as the “father of the modern garden.”

The architect's most mature work is the sparsely shaped, orderless façade of the barracks of the Horse Guards Regiment (Horse Guards, 1742-1751) in London.

Architect and architectural theorist James Gibbs (1682-1765) is the most striking individual in English architecture of the first half of the 18th century. Having studied with Philippe Juvara in Turin, he also mastered Palladio's order and proportional systems. The most significant of his buildings, both in scale and in artistic merit, is the so-called Redcliffe Library in Oxford (1737-1749), a centric structure of exceptional originality, consisting of a sixteen-sided plinth, a cylindrical main part and a dome. The massive rusticated plinth is cut through by large arched door and window openings; the round part is divided by paired three-quarter columns into sixteen piers with two tiers of alternating windows and niches. Above the balustrade that completes the main cylindrical volume, a dome topped with a lantern rises. Fully expressing its purpose, the austere and monumental university library undoubtedly occupies one of the first places among the best monuments of English architecture.

Gibbs's London churches, the construction of which he continued after Wren and Hawksmoor, are also unique - the two-story church of St. Mary le Strand (1714-1717) with a semicircular portico of the entrance and a slender bell tower and the church of St. Martin in the Fields (1721-1726) with an impressive Corinthian portico.

William Chambers (1723-1796) was a consistent representative of Palladianism in England in the second half of the 18th century, when lesser English architects had already abandoned unsuccessful attempts to adapt the plans of Palladian villas to the conditions of the English climate and the requirements of English comfort.

Chambers summed up the past stage of English architecture in his architectural treatise and his largest building, known as Somerset House in London (1776-1786). This monumental building, built on arcades of substructures, overlooks the Strand and the Thames embankment with its rusticated facades (the façade facing the river was added later, in the 19th century). The Royal Academy was located on the premises of Somerset House in 1780.

The last Palladian, Chambers was the first representative of the academic movement in English architecture.

But Somerset House, especially the facade with its three-arched entrance from the Strand and the majestic courtyard of the building, worthily concludes a large and brilliant era in the history of English architecture.

Chambers's merits in the field of landscape architecture, where he promoted English landscape park. After Kent, he worked in Kew Park, where, in addition to classical pavilions, he built a Chinese pagoda as a tribute to the European fashion for “Chineseness” and as a memory of his trip to the Far East in his youth.

Robert Adam (1728-1792), another prominent English architect of the second half of the 18th century, is often contrasted with Chambers. While the conservative Chambers was a strict guardian of Palladian traditions in architecture, Adam, a preacher of “new tastes,” was to a certain extent an innovator in English art. Taking antiquity in a new way, while paying special attention to decorative motifs, he, in his own words, “revolutionized ornament.” The leading English architects of that time, led by him, did a lot to ensure that the new artistic trends he pursued spread from interior decoration (their example can be the vestibule of Wardour Castle in Wiltshire, created by the architect James Payne, see illustration) to furniture, fabrics, and porcelain.

A typical example of Adam's work is Kedleston Hall Castle (1765-1770), built and decorated inside according to a Palladian plan drawn up by other architects (with semicircular wings adjacent to central building). But the largest ceremonial rooms of the castle, located along the main axis, undoubtedly belong to Adam. The design of the large hall, where behind the Corinthian columns made of artificial marble supporting the stucco ceiling, there are antique statues in the niches of the walls, and the domed salon, the walls of which are dissected by niches and tabernacles, was probably inspired by the ancient monuments that Adam became acquainted with during a trip to Dalmatia, where he studied Diocletian's palace in Split. The finishing techniques of other, smaller rooms - stucco ceilings and walls, decoration of fireplaces - were even more in line with the new refined tastes. The graceful facade of the Boodle Club in London (1765) gives an idea of ​​how Adam decided on the appearance of the building.

Robert Adam's architectural activity was exceptionally wide. Together with the brothers James, John and William, his permanent employees, he built entire streets, squares, and quarters of London. Having overcome the previous Palladian isolation and isolation of architectural volume, the Adam brothers developed methods for forming integral city blocks (mainly residential buildings) on the basis of a single architectural ensemble. This is Fitzroy Square, the Adelphi quarter, named after the Adam brothers themselves (“adelphos” is Greek for “brother”). As a result of later redevelopment and rebuilding of the city (and also after aerial bombing during the Second World War), little survived from the extensive building activities of the Adam brothers. But the traditions of their art retained their importance in English architecture for a long time. The already strongly Hellenized style of the Adam brothers found its continuation in the so-called “Greek Revival”, the beginning of which dates back to the end of the 18th century, a direction that was not creatively original enough and was largely eclectic. This direction reached its full development in English architecture in the first decades of the next, 19th century.

 

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