What does an airplane for schoolchildren consist of? GCD "Aircraft". Classification by design characteristics

Lecture 1

The main parts of an aircraft are the wing, fuselage, tail, landing gear and power plant.

A wing is the load-bearing surface of an aircraft, designed to create aerodynamic lift.

The fuselage is the main part of the aircraft structure, which serves to connect all its parts into one whole, as well as to accommodate the crew, passengers, equipment and cargo.

The tail is a load-bearing surface designed to provide longitudinal and directional stability and controllability.

Landing gear is an aircraft support system used for takeoff, landing, movement and parking on the ground, the deck of a ship or on the water.

The power plant, the main element of which is the engine, serves to create thrust.

In addition to these main parts, the aircraft has a large number of different equipment. It is equipped with main control systems (control of control surfaces: ailerons, elevators and rudder), auxiliary control (control of mechanization, retraction and release of landing gear, hatch doors, equipment units, etc.), hydraulic and pneumatic equipment, electrical equipment, high-altitude , protective equipment, etc.

Flight, geometric and weight characteristics, general layout, equipment used, as well as the design of individual parts are largely determined by the purpose of the aircraft.

Classification of aircraft according to the scheme

The classification of aircraft according to the scheme is carried out taking into account the relative position, shape, number and type of individual components that make up the aircraft.

The aircraft layout is determined by the following features:

1) the number and location of wings;

2) type of fuselage;

3) the location of the plumage;

4) chassis type;

5) type, number and location of engines.

It is possible to fully characterize the design of an aircraft only on the basis of all these five features. Classification according to only one or several of them cannot give a complete picture of the scheme.

According to the number of wings, all aircraft are divided into biplanes (Fig. 1, a) and monoplanes, and the latter, depending on the relative position of the wing and fuselage, are divided into low-wing (Fig. 1, b), mid-wing (Fig. 1, c) and high-wing ( Fig. 1, d).

Rice. 1. Airplane diagrams by number and location of wings

Based on the type of fuselage, aircraft are divided into single-fuselage (Fig. 2, a) and double-boom (Fig. 2, b).

Fig.2 Airplane diagrams by fuselage type.

The location of the tail on the aircraft largely determines the so-called aerodynamic design of the aircraft, which depends on the number and relative position of its load-bearing surfaces.

Based on this feature, modern monoplane aircraft are divided into three schemes: a normal or classic scheme (Fig. 3, a), a scheme with a front horizontal tail - a "canard" type scheme (Fig. 3, b) and a scheme without horizontal tail - a scheme “tailless” (Fig. 3, c). Very heavy tailless aircraft can be made according to the “flying wing” design (Fig. 3, d).

Rice. 3. Airplane diagrams by empennage location

Depending on the take-off and landing conditions, aircraft can have a wheeled landing gear (Fig. 4, a), a ski landing gear (Fig. 4, b), or a float landing gear (Fig. 4, c). For seaplanes, the fuselage can also serve as a boat (Fig. 4, d). There are mixed designs: wheeled ski chassis, amphibious boat.

Rice. 4. Aircraft diagrams by landing gear type

Piston and gas turbine engines are used as the main engines on modern aircraft. The most widely used engines at present are gas turbine engines, which, in turn, are divided into turboprop, turbofan, turbojet, turbojet with afterburner and turbojet bypass.
The choice of the type of engines, their number and location is determined to a large extent by the purpose of the aircraft and has a significant impact on its design. In Fig. Figure 5 shows typical engine layouts on an aircraft.

Fig.5. Typical engine layouts on an aircraft:
a, b – in the fuselage; c – on the rear part of the fuselage; d, e, f - on the wing.

Although different aircraft may differ greatly in design, in most cases they consist of the same basic components (Figure 2-4). Typically, an aircraft structure includes a fuselage, wings, tail, landing gear and power plant.

Fuselage. The fuselage is the central part of the aircraft and is designed to accommodate the crew, passengers and cargo. It also provides structural cohesion to the wings and tail. In the past, aircraft were constructed using an open truss structure made of wood, steel, or aluminum tubing (Figure 2-5). The most popular types of fuselage structures for modern aircraft are monocoque (French for “single shell”) and semi-monocoque. These types of designs are discussed in more detail later in this chapter.

Wings. Wings are airfoils attached to both sides of the fuselage. They provide the lift that supports the aircraft during flight. There are many wing designs, varying in shape and size. The mechanics of how a wing creates lift is discussed in Chapter 4, “Flight Aerodynamics.”

Wings can be attached to the top, middle or bottom of the fuselage. Such designs are called “high-,” “mid-,” and “low-wing,” respectively. The number of wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set of wings are called monoplanes, and those with two sets of wings are called biplanes (Fig. 2-6).

Many high-wing aircraft are equipped with external braces, or struts, that transfer the load to the fuselage during flight and landing. Because the braces are located approximately in the middle of the wing, this type of design is called a semi-cantilever wing. Some high-wing airplanes and most low-wing airplanes have cantilever, or cantilever, wings that can support the load without external struts.

The main structural parts of the wings are the spar, stiffeners and stringers (Fig. 2-7). They are reinforced with trusses, I-beams, tubing or other means (including sheathing). The configuration of the wing stiffeners determines the shape and thickness of the wing (its aerodynamic profile). In most modern aircraft, fuel tanks are integral part wing structures are either flexible containers built inside it.

There are two types of control surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the wing: ailerons and flaps. The ailerons are located approximately from the middle of each wing to its tip and move in opposite directions, creating aerodynamic forces that cause the aircraft to roll. The flaps extend from the fuselage to approximately the middle of each wing. When flying in cruise mode, they usually coincide with the surface of the wing. During takeoff and landing, the flaps extend, increasing the lift of the wing (Figure 2-8).

Alternative types of wings. Some time ago, the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) expanded the range of aircraft it certified by adding the category of “ultra-light aircraft”. The design of these aircraft can use a variety of methods to control flight and generate lift. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 4, Aerodynamics of Flight, which describes the effects of controls on lifting surfaces. different types(both a wing of a conventional configuration, and one providing for bending or weight transfer). Thus, the wing of an aircraft controlled by weight transfer has a strongly curved shape, and flight control is provided by changing the position of the pilot’s body (Fig. 2-9).

Tail unit. The tail unit includes the entire tail group and consists of both fixed surfaces (vertical and horizontal stabilizers) and movable surfaces (rudder, elevator and one or more trim tabs) (Fig. 2-10).

The rudder is attached to the rear of the vertical stabilizer. During flight, it is used to move the nose of the aircraft left or right, while the elevator, attached to the rear of the horizontal stabilizer, moves the nose of the aircraft up or down. Trims are small moving parts on the trailing edge of the control surface that reduce the control input on the control levers. Trim tabs can be mounted on the ailerons, rudder and/or elevator and are controlled from the cockpit.

The second type of tail does not require an elevator at all. Instead, it includes a single horizontal stabilizer that rotates on a central hinge. This design is called an “all-rotating stabilizer”. The stabilizer, like the elevator, is actuated by the control wheel. For example, when the hinge is retracted, the all-moving stabilizer rotates so that its rear edge rises up. All-moving stabilizers are equipped with an anti-compensator, which is installed along their trailing edge (Fig. 2-11).

The anti-compensator moves in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilizer and makes the stabilizer less sensitive. In addition, the anti-compensator acts as a trimmer, reducing control force and helping to keep the all-moving stabilizer in the desired position.

Chassis. The landing gear provides support for the aircraft during parking, taxiing, takeoff and landing. The most common type of landing gear is wheeled, but aircraft can also be equipped with floats for landing on water or skis for landing on snow (Fig. 2-12).

The landing gear consists of three wheels - two main and a third, located either at the front or at the rear of the aircraft. A chassis with a rear wheel is called a “conventional chassis”.

Airplanes with conventional landing gear are sometimes called "tailwheel airplanes." When the third wheel is located on the nose of the aircraft, it is called a “nose wheel”, and the entire structure is called a “three-wheel landing gear”. A steerable nose or tail wheel allows you to control the movement of the aircraft on the ground. Most aircraft - both nosewheel and tailwheel - are controlled using rudder pedals. Some aircraft can be controlled using brakes with separate drive on the right and left main wheels.

Power point. The power plant includes an engine and a propeller. The main function of the engine is to rotate the propeller. It also generates electrical power, is a source of vacuum for some on-board instruments, and, in most single-engine aircraft, is a source of heat for the pilot and passengers (Figure 2-13).

The engine is covered by a fairing or engine nacelle (various types of casing). The purpose of a fairing or engine nacelle is to reduce the aircraft's drag and also to provide engine cooling by directing air flow around the engine and cylinders.

The propeller, installed in front of the engine, converts the engine's rotational torque into thrust - a forward-pulling force that allows the aircraft to move in the air. The propeller can also be installed at the rear of the aircraft (push type propeller). A propeller is a rotating airfoil that provides thrust by generating aerodynamic force. An area of ​​low pressure forms behind the surface of the screw, and a high pressure area in front of it. The pressure difference pushes air through the propeller and the plane moves forward.

The efficiency of a propeller is determined by two parameters:
- the installation angle of the propeller blade, measured between the chord of the blade and the plane of rotation of the propeller;
- propeller pitch, defined as the distance that the propeller travels forward in one revolution (as if screwing into a solid body).

These two values, taken together, allow us to evaluate the efficiency of the propeller. The propellers are usually matched to a specific combination of aircraft design and powerplant so that maximum engine efficiency can be achieved. They can pull or push the aircraft (depending on the engine location).

Subcomponents. The subcomponents of an aircraft are the airframe, electrical system, flight control system and braking system.

The airframe is the basic structure of an aircraft, designed to withstand all aerodynamic loads as well as the stresses associated with the weight of fuel, crew and cargo. The main function of an aircraft's electrical system is to generate, regulate and distribute electrical energy within the aircraft. The electrical system can be powered from a variety of sources, such as engine-driven alternators, auxiliary power supplies, or external sources. It is used to power navigation instruments of vital units (such as the anti-icing system, etc.), as well as for passenger services (for example, for cabin lighting).

The flight control system combines devices and systems that control the position of the aircraft in the air and, as a result, its flight path. Most conventional aircraft use thin-edged, hinged control surfaces called elevators (for pitch), ailerons (for roll), and rudders (for yaw). Surfaces are controlled from the cockpit of the aircraft, by the pilot or autopilot.

Aircraft typically have hydraulic braking systems with disc or drum brakes, similar to automobile brakes. A disc brake consists of several plates (pads) that exert pressure on a rotating disc located between them, rigidly connected to the wheel hub. As a result of increased friction between the disc and pads, the wheels gradually slow down until they come to a complete stop. Discs and pads are made of either steel (as in cars) or carbon material, which is lighter and can absorb more energy. Aircraft braking systems are used primarily during the landing phase, absorbing great amount energy, so their lifespan is measured in the number of landings, and not in kilometers.

Airplane

Airplane

a heavier-than-air aircraft with a wing on which aerodynamic lift is generated during movement, and a power plant that creates thrust for flight in the atmosphere. The main parts of the aircraft: wing (one or two), empennage (all this together is called the airframe), avionics; military aircraft also have aviation weapons.

The wing is the main part of the aircraft. Airplanes with one wing are called monoplanes, with two - biplanes. The middle part of the wing, attached to the fuselage or integral with it, is called the center section; The side detachable parts of the wing - consoles - are attached to the center section. On the wing are located (ailerons, elevons, spoilers) and devices with which the wings are adjusted (flaps, slats, etc.). The wing houses fuel tanks, various units (for example, landing gear), communications, etc. Engines are installed on the wing or under it (on pylons). Up to mid. 20th century the planes had trapezoidal wings (in plan view). With the advent of jet engines, the shape of the wing changed and became swept. in combination with a gas turbine jet engine allows you to achieve flight speeds twice and three times higher.

In the 1960-70s. airplanes were created with a wing that varied in flight: during takeoff and landing, as well as when flying at subsonic speeds, the characteristics of a straight (traditional) wing were better; in flight at supersonic speed it turns, acquiring a sweep shape, which significantly improves its aerodynamics (MiG-23, USSR; F-111, USA). The fuselage is the body of the aircraft, carrying the wings, tail and landing gear. It houses the cockpit and, cargo compartments, equipment. Sometimes the fuselage is replaced with tail booms or combined with the wing. Until the 1930s Most aircraft had open cockpits. With the increase in flight speed and altitude, the cabins began to be covered with a streamlined “canopy”. Flights at high altitudes required the creation of sealed cabins that provided them with the pressure and temperature necessary for normal human life. The streamlined cigar-shaped fuselage provides it with minimal resistance to air flow in flight. Supersonic aircraft have a fuselage with a very pointed nose. The cross-sectional shape of the fuselage of modern aircraft can be round, oval, in the form of the intersection of two circles, close to rectangular, etc. Created in the 1965-70s. so-called wide-body aircraft with a fuselage with a diameter of 5.5–6.5 m made it possible to significantly increase the load capacity and aircraft(IL-86, USSR; Boeing-747, USA). The fuselage structure consists of load-bearing elements (spars, stringers, frames) and skin. Power elements are made from lightweight and durable structural materials (aluminum and titanium alloys, composite materials). at the dawn of aviation it was made of linen, then from plywood and from cone. 1920 – metal (aluminum and its alloys). The vast majority of aircraft are made using a single-fuselage design, very rarely using a double-boom design, and only a few experimental aircraft are fuselageless, the so-called. (XB-35, USA).

The tail provides stability and controllability of the aircraft in longitudinal and lateral movement. For most aircraft, the empennage is located on the rear of the fuselage and consists of a stabilizer and elevator (horizontal tail), fin and rudder (vertical tail). supersonic aircraft may not have elevators or rudder due to their low efficiency at high speeds. Their functions are performed by steerable (all-rotating) and stabilizer. The design of the tail is similar to that of the wing and in most cases follows its shape. The most common type is a single-fin tail, but aircraft with spaced vertical tails are being created (Su-27, MiG-31). There are known cases of creating a V-shaped tail, combining the functions of a keel and stabilizer (Bonanza-35, USA). Many supersonic aircraft, especially military ones, do not have stabilizers (Mirage-2000, France; Vulcan, UK; Tu-144).

The landing gear is used to move the aircraft around the airfield when taxiing and along the runway during takeoff and landing. The most common wheeled chassis. In winter, skis can be installed on light aircraft. U seaplanes Instead of wheels, floats-boats are attached to the chassis. During flight, the wheeled landing gear is retracted into the wing or fuselage to reduce airflow. Sports, training and other light aircraft are often built with fixed landing gear, which are simpler and lighter than retractable ones. Modern jet planes have a landing gear with a front support under the nose of the fuselage and two supports in the area of ​​​​the center of gravity of the aircraft under the fuselage or wing. This tricycle landing gear ensures safer and more stable aircraft movement at higher speeds during takeoff and landing. Heavy passenger aircraft are equipped with multi-support and multi-wheel landing gear to reduce loads and pressure on the aircraft. All landing gear is equipped with liquid-gas or liquid shock absorbers to soften the shocks that occur when the aircraft lands and moves along the airfield. For taxiing the aircraft, the front support has a rotating one. The movement of the aircraft on the ground is controlled by separate braking of the main landing gear wheels.

The power plant of the aircraft includes aircraft engines (from 1 to 4), propellers, air intakes, jet nozzles, fuel supply systems, lubrication, control, etc. Almost to the end. 1940s the main type of engine was piston engine internal combustion, driving rotation. From the end 1940s on military and civil aviation gas turbine engines began to be used jet engines– turbojet and turbofan. The engines are installed in the forward part of the fuselage (mainly on propeller-driven aircraft), built into the wing, suspended on pylons under the wing, installed above the wing (mainly in seaplanes), and placed on the rear part of the fuselage. On heavy passenger aircraft, preference is given to rear-mounted engines, since this reduces noise in the passenger cabin.

1 - ; 2 – cockpit; 3 – toilets; 4.18 – wardrobe; 5.14 – cargo; 6 – luggage; 7 – first passenger cabin with 66 seats; 8 – engine; 9 - ; 10 – vertical wing tip; 11 – external; 12 – inner flap; 13 – second passenger cabin with 234 seats; 15 – cargo on pallets in nets; 16 – emergency exit; 17 – loads in nets; 19 – keel; 20 – rudder; 21 – elevator; 22 – ; 23 – stabilizer; 24 – fuselage; 25 – ; 26 – main landing gear; 27 – ; 28 – fuel compartments; 29 – wings; 30 – buffet with elevator to the lower deck; 31 – cargo floor with spherical supports; 32 – entrance door; 33 – nose landing gear

The aircraft equipment ensures the aircraft, flight safety, and the creation of conditions necessary for the life of crew members and passengers. Aircraft navigation is provided by flight navigation, radio and radar equipment. To increase flight safety, fire-fighting equipment, emergency rescue and external equipment, anti-icing and other systems are designed. Life support systems include air conditioning and cabin pressurization units, etc. The use of microprocessor technology in aircraft control systems has made it possible to reduce the number of crews of passenger and transport aircraft to 2–3 people. The aircraft is controlled in flight using elevators and rudder (on the trailing edges of the stabilizers and fin) and ailerons deflected in opposite directions. The pilots control the rudders and ailerons from the cockpit. During regular flights along the highway, control of the aircraft is transferred to the autopilot, which not only maintains the flight direction, but also controls the operation of the engines and maintains the specified flight mode.

Aircraft armament military aviation determined by their purpose and what tasks they solve in combat operations. The military is armed with surface-class cruise missiles and air-to-air missiles, aircraft cannons and machine guns, aircraft bombs, aircraft sea mines and torpedoes.

Encyclopedia "Technology". - M.: Rosman. 2006 .

Airplane

(obsolete -) - heavier than air for flights in the atmosphere using a power plant that creates thrust and a fixed wing, on which, when moving in air environment aerodynamic lift is generated. The immobility of the wing, which distinguishes the wing from rotary-wing aircraft that have a “rotating wing” (main rotor), and from an aircraft with flapping wings (flyers), is to some extent conditional, since in a number of designs the wing can change in flight installation angle, etc. The concept of S., which originated in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. (J. Keighley) and which assumed the flight of an aircraft using a propulsion unit (propeller) and a lifting surface (wing) separated by function, in the course of the development of aircraft technology turned out to be the most successful in its entirety flight characteristics and operational qualities, and power is most widespread among aircraft with various principles for creating lift and constructive methods for their implementation ( cm. also Aviation).
Aircraft classification.
Based on their purpose, a distinction is made between civilian and military vehicles. Civil vehicles include passenger, cargo, cargo-passenger, administrative, sports, agricultural, and other vehicles for the national economy. Passenger aircraft are divided into mainline aircraft and aircraft of local airlines. Military aircraft include fighters (air combat aircraft, fighter-bombers, fighter-interceptors, multi-role aircraft), attack aircraft, bombers (front-line, long-range, intercontinental), reconnaissance aircraft (tactical, operational, strategic), military transport aircraft (light, medium, heavy). , anti-submarine, combat support (radar patrol and guidance, jammers, air control posts, in-flight refueling, etc.). Military and civil aviation includes educational, training, ambulance, patrol, and search and rescue aircraft. S. According to the type of propulsion, S. is classified as screw or jet. According to the type of engine, a propeller is often called a piston, turboprop, or jet (in particular, rocket), and according to the number of engines, for example, two-, three-, or four-engine. Depending on the maximum flight speed, aircraft are divided into subsonic (flight M(() 1) and hypersonic (M(() > > 1; often taken M(() > > 4-5). Based on basing conditions, land aircraft are distinguished based, ship-based aircraft, seaplanes (flying boats or floats) and amphibious aircraft, and according to the requirements for the length of the runway - vertical, short and conventional take-off and landing aircraft. Various maneuvering abilities (maximum operational overload value). distinguishes maneuverable, limited maneuverable, and non-maneuverable aircraft. According to the stage of development, aircraft are classified as experimental, experimental, and production aircraft, and in contrast to the original model, aircraft with a crew are called manned; for some types, aircraft without a crew are called unmanned. S. (fighters, attack aircraft, training aircraft) often indicate the number of crew members (single or double).
Many S. names are determined by their design and aerodynamic design. Based on the number of wings, monoplanes, biplanes (including sesquiplanes), triplanes and polyplanes are distinguished, and monoplanes, depending on the location of the wing relative to the fuselage, can be low-wing, mid-wing and high-wing. A monoplane without external wing reinforcements (struts) is called a cantilever, and with a wing mounted on struts above the fuselage it is called a monoplane. An aircraft with a wing sweep that can be changed in flight is often called an aircraft of variable geometry; depending on the location of the tail, there are aircraft of the normal design (with a tail), aircraft of the "" type (horizontal, no tail) and aircraft of the "" type (with horizontal tail located in front of the wing). According to the type of fuselage, the aircraft can be single-fuselage or double-boom, and the aircraft without a fuselage is called a “flying wing.” S. with a fuselage diameter of more than 5.5-6 m are called wide-body. Vertical take-off and landing aircraft have their own classification (with rotary propellers, rotary wings, lifting or lift-propulsion engines, etc.). Some classification concepts, such as, for example, “light”, “heavy”, “far”, etc., are conditional and do not always have strictly defined boundaries for S. various types(fighters, bombers, transport aircraft) can correspond to significantly different numerical values ​​of take-off mass and flight range.
Aerodynamics of the aircraft.
The lifting force that supports the wing in the air is formed as a result of the asymmetric air flow around the wing, which occurs when the wing profile is asymmetrically shaped, oriented at a certain positive angle of attack to the flow, or under the influence of both of these factors. In these cases, the flow velocity on the upper surface of the wing is greater, and the pressure (in accordance with Bernoulli's equation) is less than on the lower surface; As a result, a pressure difference is created under the wing and above the wing and a lifting force arises. Theoretical approaches to determining the lift force of a wing profile (for an ideal incompressible fluid) are reflected in the well-known Zhukovsky theorem. The total aerodynamic force RA (called the aerodynamic force of a glider) acting on the sky when an air flow flows around it can be represented in the speed coordinate system as two components - the aerodynamic lift force Ya and the drag force Xa (in the general case, the presence of a lateral force is also possible Za). The force Ya is determined mainly by the lifting forces of the wing and horizon, and the tail, and the force Xa, which is oppositely directed in relation to the flight speed, owes its origin to the friction of air on the surface of the aircraft (friction resistance), the pressure difference acting on the frontal and rear parts of the aircraft elements ( pressure resistance, cm. Profile drag, Bottom drag), and the flow bevel behind the wing associated with the formation of lift (inductive drag); in addition, at high flight speeds (near- and supersonic), , caused by the formation of shock waves ( cm. Aerodynamic drag). The aerodynamic force of a glider S. and its components are proportional to the velocity pressure
q = V2/2
((() - air density, V - flight speed) and some characteristic area, which is usually taken as S:
Ya = cyaqS,
Xa = cxaqS,
Moreover, the proportionality coefficient (lift coefficient cya and drag coefficient cxa) depend mainly on the geometric shapes of the aircraft’s parts, its orientation in the flow (angle of attack), Reynolds number, and at high speeds also on the M(()) number. Aerodynamic perfection Aircraft is characterized by the ratio of the lift force to the total drag force, called aerodynamic quality:
K = Ya/Xa = cya/cxa
In steady (V = const) horizontal flight, the weight of the aircraft G is balanced by the lift force (Ya = G), and the thrust P of the power plant must compensate for the drag (P = Xa). From the resulting relation G = KP it follows, for example, that the implementation in the construction of S. is more high value K would allow, at a fixed value of G, to reduce the required thrust for the same flight speed and, therefore, and in some other cases (for example, with the same value of P) to increase the load capacity or by C. In the early period (before the beginning of the 20s. ) S. had rough aerodynamic shapes and their aerodynamic quality values ​​were in the range K = 4-7. In the 1930s, which had straight wings and a flight speed of 300-350 km/h, values ​​of K = 13-15 were obtained. This was achieved mainly through the use of a cantilever monoplane design, improved wing profiles, streamlined fuselages, closed cockpits, rigid smooth skin (instead of fabric or corrugated metal), retracting the landing gear, cowling engines, etc. With the subsequent creation of higher-speed S. the possibilities for improving aerodynamic efficiency have become more limited. Nevertheless, on passenger S. 80s. with high subsonic flight speeds and swept wings, the maximum values ​​of aerodynamic quality were K = 15-18. On supersonic aircraft, to reduce wave drag, wings with a thin profile, high sweep, or other planform shapes with low aspect ratio are used. However, S. with such wings on subsonic speeds flight is less than that of S. subsonic schemes.
Aircraft design.
It must provide high aerodynamic characteristics, have the necessary strength, rigidity, survivability, endurance (fatigue resistance), be technologically advanced in production and maintenance, and have a minimum weight (this is one of the main criteria for aircraft perfection). In general, the aircraft consists of the following main parts: wing, fuselage, empennage, landing gear (all of this together is called the airframe), power plant, and on-board equipment; military S. have also.
Wing is the main load-bearing surface of the structure and also ensures its lateral stability. On the wing there are means of its mechanization (flaps, slats, etc.), controls (ailerons, elevons, spoilers), and in some wing configurations, landing gear supports are also fixed and engines are installed. consists of a frame with a longitudinal (spars, stringers) and transverse (ribs) strength set and sheathing. The internal volume of the wing is used to accommodate fuel, various units, communications, etc. The most important moments in the development of aircraft related to the design of the wing were completed in the 30s. the transition from a biplane design to a cantilever monoplane and which began in the late 40s and early 50s. transition from a straight wing to a swept wing. On heavy aircraft with a long flight range, for which it is important to increase the aerodynamic quality, the monoplane design made it possible to increase for this purpose, and for more power-equipped aircraft (fighters) - to use a decrease in wing area and drag to increase flight speed. The creation of cantilever monoplanes was made possible thanks to advances in structural mechanics and wing profiling, as well as the use of high-strength materials. The use of a swept wing made it possible to realize the potential for further increasing flight speed when using gas turbine engines. When a certain flight speed (critical number M(())) is reached, local supersonic zones with shock waves are formed on the wing, which leads to the appearance of wave drag. For a swept wing, due to the sliding principle, the occurrence of such unfavorable phenomena is pushed to the region of higher flight speeds (critical number M(() is greater than that of a straight wing); and in supersonic flow, the intensity of the resulting shock waves () of a subsonic S. wing is usually 20-35 (°), and for a supersonic S. it reaches 40-60 (°). .
In the 50-80s. A large number of aircraft of various types have been created with turboprop engines and turbojet engines, differing in speed and flight profile, maneuverability, and other properties. Accordingly, wings have been used on them, varying in plan form, aspect ratio, relative thickness, structural-power design, etc. Along with the swept wing, the delta wing has become widespread, combining the properties of high sweep, favorable for high supersonic flight speeds ( () 55-70°), low elongation and small relative profile thickness. In connection with the need to ensure high aerodynamic characteristics for some types of airplanes in a wide range of flight speeds, aircraft were created with a wing that varied in flight (()) 15-70°), which realized the advantages of a straight wing with a relatively large aspect ratio (takeoff and landing modes and at subsonic speeds) and high-sweep wings (flight at supersonic speeds). A variation of this scheme is all-rotary. In maneuverable aircraft, a wing with variable sweep along the leading edge has been used, which includes a trapezoidal part with moderate sweep and root flares of a highly swept wing, which improve the load-bearing properties of the wing at high angles of attack. The wing design with a forward-swept wing (FSW) has not become widespread due to the aeroelastic instability (divergence) of the wing at elevated flight speeds. The advent of composite materials opened up the possibility of eliminating this drawback by providing the necessary rigidity of the wing without noticeably weighing the structure, and the COS, which has favorable aerodynamic characteristics at high angles of attack, became available in the late 70s and 80s. the object of extensive theoretical and experimental research. S. of different speed ranges differ in wing elongation
(() = 12/S (l - wing span).
To increase aerodynamic quality, increase (), to reduce wave drag - decrease. If the aspect ratio of subsonic swept wings is usually (-) = 7-8 for passenger and transport aircraft and () = 4-4.5 for fighters, then for supersonic fighters () = 2-3.5. To ensure the necessary lateral stability, the wing consoles are installed (when viewed from the front) at a certain angle to the horizontal plane (the so-called transverse V of the wing). The improvement in the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing is largely due to the improvement of its profile. At various stages of aircraft development, the choice of wing profile was determined by aerodynamic or design requirements and the level of scientific knowledge. A flat wing was found in early S. designs, but all the first flying S. already had profiled wings. To obtain greater lifting force, thin curved wings were first used (S. of the early period), and later - wings with a thick profile (cantilever monoplanes of the 20s). As flight speeds increased, less curved and thinner profiles were used. At the end of the 30s. Work was carried out on the so-called laminar profiles of low resistance, but they were not widely used, since ensuring laminar flow placed high demands on the quality of finish and cleanliness of the wing surface. In the 70s For subsonic aircraft, supercritical profiles have been developed that make it possible to increase the value of the critical number M(()). On aircraft with high supersonic flight speeds, to reduce wave drag, wings with a small relative profile thickness ((c) = 2-6%) and a sharp leading edge are used. edge. The geometric parameters of the wing are variable along its span: it has a narrowing, the values ​​of c decrease towards the ends of the wing, aerodynamic and geometric are used, etc.
An important characteristic of S. is equal to
G/S = cyyV2/2.
At all stages of aircraft development, it increased - on high-speed aircraft due to a decrease in wing area in order to reduce drag and increase flight speed, and on heavy aircraft due to an accelerated increase in the mass of the aircraft. With an increase in the specific load on the wing, the take-off speed increases accordingly and landing, the required length of the runway increases, and it also becomes more difficult to pilot the aircraft during landing. Reduced lift-off speed and landing speed is ensured by the mechanization of the wing, which allows, when the flaps and flaps are deflected, to increase the maximum values ​​of the coefficient cy, and for some structures, also the area of ​​the load-bearing surface. Wing mechanization devices began to be developed in the 20s, and became widespread in the 30s. At first, simple flaps were used, later retractable and slotted flaps (including two- and three-slotted ones) appeared. Some types of wing mechanization (slats, etc.) are also used in flight, during maneuvering. The idea of ​​matching the shape of the wing profile with the flight mode is the basis of the adaptive wing. In the 50s. To increase the lift of the wing at low flight speeds, it began to be used, in particular, to blow off the boundary layer by blowing air bleed from the engine onto the upper surfaces of the wing tips and flaps. In the 70s Short take-off and landing aircraft (STOL) began to be created with the so-called energy mechanization of the wing, based on the use of engine energy to increase lift by blowing the wing or flaps with the jet stream of the engines.
Fuselage serves to combine into one whole the various parts of the aircraft (wings, empennage, etc.), to accommodate the crew cabin, units and systems of on-board equipment, and also, depending on the type and design of the aircraft, passenger compartments and cargo compartments, engines , weapons and landing gear compartments, fuel tanks, etc. In the early stages of aircraft development, its wing was connected to the tail using an open truss or a box-shaped truss fuselage covered with fabric or rigid skin. Truss fuselages were replaced by so-called beam fuselages with various combinations of strength sets - longitudinal (spars, stringers) and transverse (frames) and “working” skin. This design made it possible to give the fuselage various well-streamlined shapes. For a long time, an open or protected by a front visor cockpit prevailed, and on heavy aircraft they were fitted into the contours of the fuselage. As flight speed increased, the cabins of light aircraft began to be covered with a streamlined canopy. Flights at high altitudes required the creation of sealed cabins (on combat and passenger airplanes) with the provision of air parameters in them necessary for normal human life. On modern aircraft, various forms of cross-section of the fuselage have become widespread - round, oval, in the form of the intersection of two circles, etc. On a fuselage with a cross-section close to rectangular and with a specially profiled bottom, it is possible to obtain some additional lifting force (load-bearing fuselage). . The area of ​​the fuselage section of a light aircraft is determined by the dimensions of the crew cabin or the dimensions of the engines (when installed in the fuselage), and on heavy aircraft - by the dimensions of the passenger or cargo cabin, weapons compartments, etc. The creation in the second half of the 60s. Wide-body aircraft with a diameter of about 6 m made it possible to significantly increase payload and passenger capacity. The length of the fuselage is determined not only by the conditions for placing the transported load, fuel, and equipment, but also by the requirements related to the stability and controllability of the aircraft (ensuring the required position of the center of gravity and the distance from it to the tail). To reduce wave drag, the fuselages of supersonic aircraft have a large aspect ratio, a pointed nose, and sometimes in the area of ​​interface with the wing the fuselage is “tucked in” (when viewed from above) in accordance with the so-called area rule. Most aircraft are made according to a single-fuselage design. Double-boom aircraft were built relatively rarely, and even less frequently were fuselage aircraft.
Plumage provides longitudinal and directional stability, balancing and controllability of the aircraft. Most of the aircraft created, especially subsonic ones, had a normal design, that is, with a tail unit, usually consisting of fixed and deflectable (control) surfaces: the stabilizer and elevator form (GO), and keel and rudder - (VO). According to the structural-power scheme, the tail is similar to the wing, and at high speed, the VO and GO, like the wing, are swept-shaped. On heavy subsonic airplanes, to facilitate balancing, the stabilizer is sometimes made adjustable, that is, with a variable installation angle in flight. At supersonic flight speeds, the effectiveness of the rudders decreases; therefore, on supersonic aircraft, the stabilizer and fin can be controlled, including all-moving ones (forward and horizontal without rudders). The most common type is single-fin tail, but aircraft with spaced-out wings are also created. The design of a V-shaped tail unit that performs the functions of GO and VO is known. A fairly large number of engines, especially supersonic ones, are made according to the “tailless” design (there is no GO). A small number of aircraft have been built according to the canard design (with a front cylinder), but it continues to attract attention, in particular, due to the advantage of using the positive lift force created by the front cylinder to balance the car.
Chassis serves to move the aircraft around the airfield (during taxiing, takeoff, and landing), as well as to soften the shocks that occur during landing and movement of the aircraft. The most common type is a wheeled chassis, but on light aircraft in winter conditions a ski chassis is sometimes used. Attempts were made to create a tracked chassis, which turned out to be too heavy. The necessary seaworthiness and stability on the water of seaplanes are provided by floats or a fuselage boat. Chassis resistance can reach 40% of the frontal drag, so in the early 40s. To increase flight speed, retractable landing gear began to be widely used. Depending on the design of the fuselage, the landing gear is retracted into the wing, fuselage, and engine nacelles. Low-speed aircraft are sometimes built with fixed landing gear, which is lighter and simpler in design. To ensure a stable position of the vehicle on the ground, its chassis includes at least three supports. Previously, a tricycle landing gear with a low tail support was mainly used, but jet aircraft are equipped with a landing gear with a front landing gear, which ensures a safer landing at high speeds and stable movement of the aircraft during the takeoff and run. In addition, the horizontal position of the fuselage (with the front support) helps to reduce the impact of the engine jet stream on the airfield surface. On a number of aircraft, it is used with two main supports along the fuselage and auxiliary supports at the ends of the wing. One of the advantages of this design is the absence of nacelles on the wing for retracting the landing gear, which worsen the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing. On the M-4 heavy bomber, the front strut of the bicycle landing gear was “raised” during takeoff, which increased the speed and shortened the take-off run. The landing gear support usually includes a strut, liquid-gas or liquid, struts, retraction mechanisms and wheels. The wheels of the main supports, and sometimes the front supports, are equipped with brakes, which are used to reduce the length of the run after landing, as well as to hold the aircraft in place when the engines are running (before the takeoff roll, when testing the engines, etc.). To ensure steering, the front support has an orienting wheel. Control of the vehicle's movement on the ground at low speeds is ensured by separate braking of the wheels of the main supports, as well as by the creation of asymmetrical engine thrust. When this method is ineffective or impossible (bicycle chassis, single-engine layout in combination with a small chassis track, etc.), the front support is controlled. Heavy passenger and transport aircraft are equipped with multi-legged and multi-wheeled chassis to reduce the loads and pressures on the airfield pavement. The search for new, in particular non-contact, takeoff and landing devices (for example, hovercraft landing gear) is aimed at expanding the capabilities of landing aircraft.
Aircraft power plant.
Creates the necessary thrust over the entire range of operating conditions and turns on the engines ( cm. Aviation engine), propellers, air intakes, jet nozzles, fuel supply systems, lubrication, control and regulation, etc. Almost until the end of the 40s. The main type of engine for S. was an air- or liquid-cooled piston engine. Important stages in the development of power plants with piston engines are the creation of variable pitch propellers (effective in a wide range of flight conditions); increase in liter power due to an increase in the compression ratio, which became possible after a significant increase in the anti-knock properties of aviation gasoline; providing the required engine power at altitude by supercharging them using special superchargers. To reduce the aerodynamic drag of the power plant, the aim was to close the star-shaped air-cooled piston engines with annular profiling hoods, as well as to remove the radiators of the liquid-cooled piston engines into the wing or fuselage tunnels. The power of the aircraft piston engine was increased to 3160 kW, and the flight speed of aircraft with a piston engine was increased to 700-750 km/h. However, further growth in speed was hampered by a sharp increase in the aerodynamic drag of the aircraft and a decrease in the efficiency of the propeller due to the increasing influence of air compressibility and the associated increase in the required engine power, while the possibilities of reducing its weight and size had already been exhausted. This circumstance stimulated the development and introduction of lighter and more powerful gas turbine engines (turbojet engines and turboprop engines).
Turbojet engines have become widespread in combat aircraft, and turboprop engines and turbojet engines have become widespread in passenger and transport aircraft. Rocket engines (liquid rocket engines) are not widely used due to the short available flight duration (it is necessary to have not only an oxidizer on board, but also an oxidizer), although they were used in a number of experimental rockets, in which record flight speeds were achieved. Traction, economic and aviation gas turbine engines were continuously improved by increasing the parameters of the engine's operating process, using new materials, design solutions and technological processes. An increase in flight speeds up to high supersonic ones (M(() = 3) was achieved using turbojet engines equipped with an afterburner, which made it possible to significantly (by 50% or more) increase the engine thrust. In experimental aircraft, power plants consisting only of ramjet engines (starting from a ramjet engine), as well as combined installations (+ ramjet engine) Power plants with a ramjet engine provide further expansion of the speed range of ramjet applications (). cm. Hypersonic aircraft). In subsonic passenger and transport aircraft, economical turbojet engines were used, first with a low bypass ratio, and later (in the 60-70s) with a high bypass ratio. The specific fuel consumption on a supersonic aircraft reaches 0.2 kg/(Nph) in afterburner flight modes; for subsonic aircraft in cruising flight modes it is increased to 0.22-0.3 kg/(kW h) for turboprop engines and 0. 07-0.058 kg/(N h) for turbojet bypass engines. The creation of highly loaded propellers that maintain high efficiency up to high flight speeds (M(() 0.8) forms the basis for the development of turbofan engines, which are 15-20% more economical than turbojet bypass engines. Passenger aircraft engines are equipped with thrust reversal devices on landing to reduce the run length and are low-noise ( cm. Noise standards). The number of engines in a power plant depends mainly on the purpose of the engine, its main parameters and requirements for flight characteristics. The total power (thrust) of the power plant, determined by the required starting power-to-weight ratio (thrust-to-weight ratio) of the aircraft, is selected based on the conditions of not exceeding the specified take-off run length, ensuring a climb in the event of one engine failure, achieving maximum flight speed at a given altitude, etc. Thrust-to-weight ratio of a modern supersonic fighter reaches 1.2, while for a subsonic passenger aircraft the S. is usually in the range of 0.22-0.35. There are various options for placing engines on the S. Piston engines were usually installed on the wing and in the forward part of the fuselage. The engines on turboprop aircraft are installed similarly. On jet aircraft, the layout solutions are more varied. On light combat aircraft, one or two turbojet engines are usually installed in the fuselage. On heavy jet aircraft, the practice was to place the engines in the root part of the wing, but the scheme of suspending the engines on pylons under the wing became more widespread. On a passenger aircraft, engines (2, 3, or 4) are often placed on the rear part of the fuselage, and in the three-engine version, one engine is placed inside the fuselage, and it is placed in the root part of the fin. The advantages of such arrangements include reduced noise in the passenger cabin and increased aerodynamic quality due to a “clean” wing. Three-engine versions of passenger aircraft are also made according to a scheme with two engines on pylons under the wing and one in the rear fuselage. On some supersonic aircraft, the engine nacelles are located directly on the lower surface of the wing, and special profiling of the outer contours of the nacelles makes it possible to use a system of shock waves (increasing pressure) to obtain additional lift on the wing. Installing engines on top of the wing is used in short take-off and landing aircraft with airflow over the upper surface of the wing.
Aviation engines use liquid - gasoline in piston engines and the so-called (kerosene type) in gas turbine engines ( cm. Aviation fuel). Due to the depletion of natural oil reserves, synthetic fuels, cryogenic fuels (in 1988 the USSR created an experimental aircraft Tu-155, using liquefied gas as fuel), as well as aviation nuclear power plants, can be used. A number of light experimental solar systems have been created that use energy solar panels (cm. Solar plane), of which the most famous is “Solar” (USA); It carried the flight from Paris to London in 1981. Construction of demonstration aircraft with a muscular propeller drive continues ( cm. Muscle plane). In 1988, the flight range of a muscle plane reached about 120 km at a speed of over 30 km/h.
Aircraft equipment.
Ensures piloting, flight safety, and creation of the necessary conditions for the life of members. crew and passengers and performing tasks related to the purpose of the aircraft. Flight navigation, radio engineering and radar equipment are used for aircraft navigation. To increase flight safety, fire-fighting, emergency rescue, external lighting equipment, anti-icing and other systems are designed. The life support system includes air conditioning and cabin pressurization systems, oxygen equipment. The power supply for power supply systems and units is provided by electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic systems. The target equipment is determined by type C. This includes, for example, units for spraying chemicals on agricultural vehicles, household equipment for passenger vehicles, surveillance and sighting systems for combat vehicles, reconnaissance, anti-submarine, airborne transport, search and rescue equipment, and radar patrol equipment. and guidance, electronic warfare, etc. (instruments, indicators, signaling devices) provides the crew with the information necessary to carry out the flight mission, control the operation of the power plant and on-board equipment. In the early stages of development, aircraft were equipped with a small number of instruments that controlled the basic flight parameters (altitude, heading, roll, speed) and engine speed, and could fly under conditions of visual visibility of the horizon and ground references. The expansion of the practical use of satellites and the increase in flight range and altitude required the creation of on-board equipment that would make it possible to perform long flights day and night, in difficult meteorological and geographical conditions. In the first half of the 30s. gyroscopic means were created (artificial horizon, gyro-semi-compass), which provided for flights in clouds, fog, at night, and autopilots began to be used, which freed the pilot from the tedious work of maintaining a given flight mode at long routes. At the end of the 20s. Aircraft transceiver radio stations began to be introduced. In the 30s On-board and ground-based radio equipment (radio compasses, direction finders, radio beacons, radio markers) began to be used to determine the flight direction and location of the aircraft, as well as in the first instrument approach systems. During World War II, radars were used in combat aircraft, which were used for target detection and navigation. In the post-war years, the functionality of aircraft equipment was significantly expanded, and its accuracy was increased. Flight navigation equipment is created based on the use of a variety of means: combined systems for determining airspeed parameters, Doppler meters of ground speed and drift angle, heading systems with magnetic, gyroscopic and astronomical sensors, radio engineering systems for short and long-range navigation, high-precision inertial systems, radar sights to clarify the location of the S. and determine the meteorological situation, etc. More accurate instrumental (instrument) approach systems, and then automatic landing systems, were used. On-board digital computers are used to process information and automatically control the operation of various systems. On combat S. onboard radar stations are widely used in surveillance and targeting systems for detecting air and ground targets and guiding guided missiles at them. For the same purposes, optical-electronic systems are used, including heat direction finders, laser locators, etc. The information content of display means has increased. The use of on-screen indicators and head-up indicators is increasing. The latter allow the pilot to see the necessary information projected in front of him, without being distracted from the view of the extra-cockpit space in critical flight modes. Expert crew assistance systems based on artificial intelligence and a voice control system were tested experimentally (in the late 80s). On modern airplanes, the layout of the flight deck, the selection of the optimal composition, and the location of information display equipment, control panels, etc. are made taking into account the requirements of aviation ergonomics.
Armament.
The armament of military weapons is intended to destroy manpower, air, ground, and sea (underwater and surface) targets and includes (depending on the weapon’s purpose) machine gun and cannon, bomber, mine, torpedo, and missile weapons. In this case, small arms and missiles can be offensive or serve for defense against enemy fighters (for example, on bombers, military transport aircraft). The formation of the main combat aircraft (fighters and bombers) dates back to the period of the First World War. Initially, conventional (military) machine guns were used. It was important to use a synchronizer, which allows firing through the plane of rotation of the propeller. Fighters were armed with fixed synchronized machine guns, and on bombers machine guns were mounted on rotating devices to organize all-round defense. The ancestor of bomber aviation was the aircraft "" (1913). Its bomb load reached 500 kg. During the period between the two world wars, special machine-gun and cannon weapons were created that met the requirements of aviation use (low weight and dimensions, high, low recoil, remote control of firing and reloading, etc.). A new type of weapon was created in the 30s. uncontrollable. Second World War clearly demonstrated the great role of weaponry as a means of armed struggle. In the first half of the 50s. S. appeared, armed with guided missiles. The basis of modern missile armament are guided missiles of the air-to-air and air-to-surface classes with different firing ranges and various guidance methods. The launch range reaches 300 km for air-to-air missiles and tactical air-to-surface missiles ( cm. Aviation rocket).
In the early 80s. bombers began to be armed with strategic air-to-surface cruise missiles with a launch range of up to 2500 km. On light rockets, the rockets are suspended on external holders, while on heavy ones they can also be placed inside the fuselage (including on rotating drums).
Construction materials.
The main material for the manufacture of the frame of most of the first vehicles was wood; fabrics (for example, percale) were used as coverings, and metal was used only to connect various components of the vehicle, in the chassis and in the engines. The first all-metal Ss were built in 1912-1915. In the early 20s. became widespread, which for many years became the main structural material in aircraft construction, due to the combination of high strength and low weight properties that are important for aircraft. Stronger steels were used in heavily loaded structural elements (for example, in the chassis). For a long time (until the Second World War), structures of mixed (wooden and metal) construction were also created. With increasing flight speed, the requirements for structural materials have increased due to the increased (due to aerodynamic heating) operating temperature of structural elements. It is close to the air stagnation temperature, which depends on the flight speed and is determined by the relation
T0 T(1 + 0.2M(()2),
where T is the air temperature. When flying in the lower stratosphere (T = 216.65 K), the numbers M(() = 1, M(() = 2 and M(() = 3) will correspond to the air flow stagnation temperature values ​​of 260, 390, 607 K (or - 13, 117, 334 (-) C). Aluminum alloys predominate in the design of aircraft with maximum flight speeds corresponding to M(() = 2-2.2). At higher speeds, special steels also begin to be used. hypersonic speeds flight requires the use of heat-resistant alloys, “hot”, heat-protected or cooled structures (for example, using liquid hydrogen fuel, which has a large cooling resource). Since the 70s In auxiliary structures, steel began to be used, which has high specific strength and rigidity characteristics. The manufacture of power elements from them will significantly increase the weight perfection of the S design. In the 80s. A number of lightweight solar systems were created, almost entirely made of composite materials. Among them is the record-breaking aircraft “,” which made a non-stop flight in 1986. round the world flight without refueling in flight.
Airplane control.
Many schemes and configurations of the aircraft were tested before it became stable and well-controllable in flight. The aircraft's stability and controllability in a wide range of operating conditions is ensured by an appropriate choice of geometric parameters of the wing, tail, controls and its alignment, as well as control automation. To maintain a given flight mode and change the aircraft's trajectory, control parts (rudders) are used, which in the traditional case include an elevator, a rudder, and oppositely deflected ones ( cm. also governing bodies). Control is carried out by changing aerodynamic forces and moments when these surfaces deflect. To deflect the control surfaces, it moves the control handle (or steering wheel) and pedals installed in the cockpit. Using the control stick, the elevator (longitudinal control) and ailerons (lateral control) are deflected, and the rudder (directional control) is deflected using the pedals. connected to the steering wheels by flexible (cable) or rigid control wiring. On many types of aircraft, control levers are equipped at the workstations of two crew members. To reduce the forces on the control levers necessary to deflect the rudders, various types of compensation for the hinge moment occurring on them are used. In steady-state flight conditions, it may be necessary to deflect the rudders to balance C. In this case, auxiliary control surfaces - trimmers - are used to compensate for the hinge moment. For large hinge moments (on heavy or supersonic aircraft), hydraulic steering actuators are used to deflect the rudders. In the 70s The so-called (EDSU) has found application. On the S. with EMDS, there is no mechanical control wiring (or is backup), and the transmission of signals from the command levers to the rudder deflection actuators is carried out via electrical communications. EMDS has a smaller mass and allows increasing reliability by redundant communication lines. Fly-by-wire systems are also used in new types of control systems based on the use of sensitive sensors, computer technology and high-speed drives. These include systems that make it possible to control a statically unstable aircraft (such aerodynamic configurations provide benefits in aerodynamic and weight characteristics), as well as systems designed to reduce the loads acting on the aircraft during maneuvering or flight in a turbulent atmosphere, to suppress flutter and etc. ( cm. Active control systems). New control systems open up the possibility of implementing unusual forms of aircraft movement in the vertical and horizontal planes due to the direct control of lifting and lateral forces (without transient processes associated with a preliminary change in the angular position of the aircraft during traditional control), which increases control speed and piloting accuracy. In the 80s experimental remote control systems using fiber-optic communication channels have been created.
Aircraft operation.
To prepare aircraft for flight and take off and land, specially equipped airfields are needed. Depending on the take-off weight, type of landing gear, and takeoff and landing characteristics, the aircraft can be operated from airfields with natural or artificial surfaces and with different runway lengths. Unpaved airfields are used mainly for local airlines, agricultural airfields, forward-based military airfields (fighters, attack aircraft, etc.), as well as military transport and cargo airplanes with high-cross-country chassis (with low specific gravity). load on the ground) and powerful wing mechanization. For some types of aircraft (heavy bombers, long-haul passenger aircraft, etc.) concrete airfields are required, and the required length runway can reach 3000-4500 m. Preparation of aircraft for flight includes checking the serviceability of systems and equipment, refueling, loading aircraft, suspension of bomber and missile weapons, etc. Passenger aircraft flights are controlled by ground air traffic control services and are carried out according to special instructions. established air routes with the necessary separation. Many types of aircraft are capable of autonomous flight. The crew of the aircraft is diverse in terms of the number of members and the functions of its members and is determined by type C. In addition to one or two pilots, it may include a navigator, flight engineer, flight radio operator, gunners and on-board equipment operators, flight attendants (on passenger aircraft) The largest number The crew has S., equipped with special radio-electronic equipment (up to 10-12 people on anti-submarine S., up to 14-17 people on S. long-range radar detection). The crews of military aircraft are provided with the possibility of emergency escape from the aircraft using a parachute or ejection. On some types of aircraft, to protect crew members from the effects of adverse flight factors, it is used. protective equipment, for example, altitude-compensating and anti-overload suits, etc. ( cm. High altitude equipment). is ensured by a complex of various measures, including: proper standardization of the strength and reliability of the structure of the system and its components; equipping the aircraft with special systems and equipment that increase the reliability of its flight operation; redundancy of vital systems; performing the necessary laboratory and bench tests of systems and assemblies, including tests of full-scale structures for strength and fatigue; conducting flight tests to verify the aircraft’s compliance with technical requirements and airworthiness standards; careful technical control during the production process; special selection and high level of professional training of flight personnel; an extensive network of ground air traffic control services; systematically carrying out preventive (routine) work with in-depth control during operation technical condition engines, systems and units, their replacement due to the exhaustion of the established resource, etc.- noun, m., used. often Morphology: (no) what? airplane, why? airplane, (I see) what? airplane, what? by plane, about what? about the plane; pl. What? airplanes, (no) what? airplanes, why? airplanes, (I see) what? airplanes, what? airplanes, about what? about airplanes... ... Dmitriev's Explanatory Dictionary

Airplane, airplanes, airplane, airplanes, airplane, airplanes, airplane, airplanes, airplane, airplanes, airplane, airplanes (

Airports

• Babodedovo, Darmoedovo, Gomodedovo, House, Grandfather - Domodedovo
• Granddaughter - Vnukovo
• Korovkino - Bykovo
• Sharik, Sharomoykino, Sharomyga, Sharomyzhkino, "Wider, Mother", Sherema - Sheremetyevo
• Rama - Ramenskoye airfield
• Khitrovka - Heathrow airfield (London)

Weather

• four nines - good weather
• million per million - visibility more than 10 km
• sloechka - stratus clouds
• cumulus clouds
• case - weather below minimum
• dung, crap - bad weather
• stones from the sky - heavy rain
• mryaka - blizzard
• mryaka with milk - fog with precipitation

Airplane elements

• snout, nickel - nose; tailbone - tail; belly - middle part of the fuselage
• rowing, mahalo - propeller; palm tree - rotor of a helicopter in the parking lot
• fan, meat grinder - screw motor
• burner - the output part of the turbojet turbine
• paws, paws, legs, muscles - landing gear (“tuck up your paws” - remove the landing gear, “throw away the wheels” - advice that it’s time to drop the landing gear)
• bast shoes - chocks for aircraft wheels
• mugs - flaps, spoilers, brake flaps
• bank - airplane cabin (tube - passenger cabin of a small airplane)
• potty - toilet (swallow - toilet bowl; splash guard - faucet in the toilet)
• trestle bed - passenger seat, backrest - upper part of the seat, boulevard - passage between the seats
• hole - porthole
• noose - seat belt
• office - cockpit
• horns - steering wheel (RS (cattle) - flight personnel, KRS (cattle) - command and control personnel)
• muzzle - oxygen mask
• ears - headset
• stool, bench, cup - the pilot’s seat in the cockpit of the aircraft (the left cup is the PIC’s seat, the right cup is the co-pilot’s seat. The co-pilot’s motto: “Our business is right not to interfere with the left!” A fighter is a bad co-pilot. A guardsman is good second pilot. Phrase from the song: “Well, here I am on the left stool...”)
• Tamara - sparka (on MiG-21)
• chip - plug connector for connecting ground power to the aircraft
• traffic light - light signaling in the cargo-passenger cabin of an aircraft equipped for landing
• button accordion - a cluster of gas stations behind the seat in the Mig-29 cockpit
• newspaper - light signal boards located on the upper central console
• carrot - keel radome of electronic warfare antennas on the Tu-160
• pioneer - turn and slide indicator (the term originates from imported devices from the American company "Pioneer")
• soldier - mechanical backup for the landing gear extended position indicator
• l Opata - Su-27 brake flap
• dog walker - space on an airplane glider where you can carry personal cargo
• eyes - landing lights
• fins - horizontal stabilizer (comb - vertical)
• goiter - lower canopy of the pilot's cabin

At the airport

• board - aircraft
• tram - plane in a regular passenger configuration (cabin - plane in a VIP configuration)
• gut - teletrap or ground power cable
• pipelac - self-propelled ladder
• passenger transport - telescopic gangway
• livestock carrier, hearse - bus for passengers
• member carrier - VIP car
• Kasletka - hot food wrapped in foil
• chicken - flight catering
• goat service - the flight attendant service of AK Transaero (the name comes from the name of the head of the service M.M. Kozlov, who, according to internal legend, introduces himself as “the head of the Kozlov service”)
• hanger - installation for weighing luggage
• tit, can - fuel tanker
• brilliant green, tarragon - gasoline B-91/115 (from the characteristic green color)
• dovecote, birdhouse - control tower
• bow - locator installation in AP
• condom, sorcerer - windsock
• shit - a machine for draining chemicals. toilet fluids
• tablet - ambulance
• Tamagotchi - luggage tractor TMX-30
• massandra, bulldozer, equivalent, sword and much more - aviation alcohol
• massandrovoz - alcohol dispenser
• massandric key - key to filler necks
• chassis liquor - alcohol with glycerin from shock struts
• shaernitsa - pliers for screwing ShR connectors
• TK-16 (16-kilogram tank sledgehammer) - a device for dismantling the stabilizer on the MiG-23
• sledgehammer - sledgehammer
• teddy bear - small hydraulic lift
• goose - a stepladder with a long “neck” for access to the top of the fuselage
• zhlyga - rod for draining sludge
• slurry - hydraulic fluid
• vodka - kerosene
• TOM, serpent gorynych - heat-blowing machine for de-icing
• high-rise - high-altitude oxygen service
• oxygen bottle - oxygen cylinder (oxygen bootle)
• runner - flight task
• smyk - a back-and-forth flight between two airfields on international flights (outside the base)
• tram trip - a trip with several intermediate stops or a trip performed day after day along the same route, without any changes
• window dressing - demonstration performances, demonstration of aircraft equipment
• group sex - group aerobatics flights
• nut - Barvikha restricted area (octahedron on the screen); “pass through the hole” - the flight of an aircraft between the “nut” and Moscow
• neighbors - a nearby military airfield; “pass along the fence” - aircraft flying along the border with “neighbors”
• checkerboard - a form for manually recording passengers during check-in
• check in - check in for a flight
• search - inspection
• red plan - daily flight plan for airport operational services
• physical education (physical exercises) - checking the mechanization before takeoff
• chevrette - flight crew uniform jacket made of chevrette leather
• rompers - semi-overall trousers from a demi-season or winter set of flight uniforms
• radiculitis - demi-season jacket
• Order of Sutuly - badge "For an accident-free raid"

People in aviation

• flight master - felt-tip pen
• pinstr - instructor (in civil aviation, and in military aviation - scrub)
• boot - military transport aviation pilot
• skipper - co-pilot ("legs together - salary two hundred" - about the right pilot)
• rach - pilot with sanorma
• white-headed - pilot in a helmet
• flight attendant - flight mechanic
• whore - navigator
• talker bird - flight radio operator
• frostbitten - a crew that does not respond promptly to commands
  
• flight, wire, girls, boys - flight attendants ("click on the girl" - press the button to call the flight attendants)
• old sick cassette - experienced flight attendant
• paxes, nausea, banderlogs, pickles - passengers (umka - unaccompanied child; bagmen - shuttles; economists - economy class passengers; businessmen, truffles - business class passengers; pervachi - first class passengers; corral of cattle, pressing - boarding passengers)
• mullet - passenger flow (for example, “the mullet has gone”); scow - civil aviation jet aircraft
• Shurik is a cop in the cabin in case the ship is hijacked
• glide path owner - landing controller
• lord of the ring - circle controller
• nachpryg - head of the PDS
• super, superman - supervisor on the platform
• Hitler Youth - employee of the East Line Security (the name is due to the characteristic dark blue uniform)
• oil tank, oil pump, elephant - C&D technician (aircraft and engine); elephant is an abbreviation for Airplane Maintenance, and is also one of the Elephants on which aviation rests
• lace, wild boar, monkey, monkey, rosin, special, kishkomot - specialist in aviation and radio-electronic equipment.
• copperheads, doubleheads, tupatites, trunks, oakcutters, bombheads - AB (aviation weapons) specialists
• click - AV technician
• stumps, skulls - specialists of the PNK (flight navigation complex)
• wind blower, meteorologist - meteorologist
• boar - aviation security officer
• maceman - driver of an airfield sewerage special vehicle (from the Soviet MA-7, called GUK - shit harvester)
• brooms - employees of the service involved in internal cleaning on board the aircraft
• turtle - interior cleaning service employee
• Carlson - paraglider
• batman, sheetman, hang glider - hang glider
• jumped - paratroopers

Slang phrases

• pull the horns - turn the helm
• fly on horns (on your hands) - pilot an aircraft when the autopilot fails
• fly (pull) on light bulbs - fly with little fuel remaining
• flap your wings - fly with insufficient fuel or land with faulty engines
• to wander - to fly with lost orientation
• going against the grain - flying at a flight level with a heading for which the flight level is not intended
• to fluff up, to grow bared, the fur to stand on end - to release mechanization
• crank up - full throttle
• polish - fly without problems
• march - fly in cruising flight
• wash away - pass through the clouds
• shaving the grass is the perfect way to land a plane
• promotion - soft landing
• gild the keel - sit under the approach
• fold wings - land (after stopping on the runway)
• knock out the plug - open the door after landing
• cancel flights - flight cancellations
• give a pulse - undergo a pre-flight inspection
• trample - maneuver along the steering tracks in the AP
• wait for the traffic light - stand in front of the runway exit
• make a poker, make Semyon - fly 7.00 per day
• do Vasily - fly 8.00 per day
• unbend hooks - perform short flights
• bones overboard, leave the office, pull the balls - eject
• scoop - unplanned loss of altitude during a maneuver
• bushes are flashing - withdrawal from the maneuver below the minimum safe height
• slip - fall in air pocket
• rest - turn on reverse, start braking
• approach according to the scheme - returning home at a good temperature, that is, drunk
• leaving for a spare place - leaving for a friend (lover)
• drilling holes in the ZSh - unsuccessful family life (holes are for horns)
• go into a tailspin, go into promotion - go on a binge
• break the weather - have a drinking party in bad weather
• nose to the alignment point - the position of a pilot who has fallen asleep drunk at the table
• Blenders fell out - I had too much alcohol
• failure of the gyro-vertical (or blockage of the gyro unit) - a level of intoxication when you cannot stand on your feet, but still have some strength left to move (and attempts to move lead to periodic falls)
• cadaverause - the condition of a pilot when overworked, after taking a large dose
• drain the sediment - go to the toilet
• presses on the valve - the desire to take a leak (Passat is a lightweight Nissan)
• center - to steal something from the aircraft (cargo, luggage, catering)
• KUR zero weight - fly to a radio station
• to wind the glide path on the propeller - to hang noodles on the ears of your interlocutor
• sticks stopped - engine failure
• icons flew off - accident
• a mouthful of earth is a disaster
• disintegrate - break the aircraft (mainly during landing)
• minor breakdowns - fragments of the aircraft collected from the crash site with a rake
• oblique plane - an airplane after an engine failure. Flying an oblique plane means flying with asymmetrical thrust
• the left egg is heavier - fly with a chronic left roll
• light up the crosses, make the cross - (at the dispatchers) bring the markers close together, causing the Proximity Warning System (DPOS) to be activated, the crosses around the markers light up
• squat - inability to quickly clear the runway
• push away - tow away the aircraft
• stand on a string - release the plane
• keep your ears open - maintain communication with the cockpit via SPU
• sit on a tube - direct flights
• sit on the "pacifier" - use the PRP prompts during boarding
• drive to Katya - fly to Yekaterinburg (others geographical names: Minstrual Waters, Krasnodyr, Siphilisi (Tbilisi), Puddle ( Atlantic Ocean- for example, “flights beyond Puddle”, i.e. to America), dome ( North Pole), Lax - flight to Los Angeles)
• Trizor ran away again - the border has arrived
• “N hours, M minutes - wheels in the air” - the most strict indication of the start time of any action - for example, a spill or arrival on alarm
• “I bought my son a cap with a big visor” - not to let my son into flight school (the visor is so that he doesn’t see the sky)

Names of various aircraft

• Aircraft manufactured by Airbus - watermelon
• Aircraft produced by Boeing - Bobik
• Boeing 737 - small Boeing
• Boeing 747 - humpback, silver carp
• Boeing 777 - three axes
• An-12 - barn, livestock carrier, fantomas
• An-2 - Antoshka (Anton), Annushka, barn, cockroach
• An-24 - fantomas, driftwood, crock, vibration stand
• An-26 - dump truck, barge
• An-72, An-74 - Cheburashka, Cheburator (“Gazprom” An-74 - lighter)
• An-8 - alcohol carrier
• An-225 "Mriya" - centipede
• Il-2, Il-10 (Ilyushin attack aircraft) - hunchbacked
• Il-114 and Il-18 - sawmills
• I-16 - donkey
• IL-18 - shaggy, Junkers
• IL-62 - log
• Il-76 - humpbacked
• Il-76MF - tuning
• Il-86, Il-96 - loaf, eggplant
• Ka-26 - turd, turd, Ivanushka the Fool (wherever it blows, it will fly)
• Mi-1 - double toilet
• Mi-6, Mi-26 - cow
• Mi-6 - locomotive nuts, bear
• Mi-24 - crocodile, striped, file, drum
• Mi-26 - brick with a bow
• Mi-8 - Vasilisa the Beautiful
• Mikoyaniya - OKB im. Art. Iv. Mikoyan
• Mikoyanovsky Meat Processing Plant - the same thing (when mentioned in some unflattering context)
• Migar - MiG aircraft
• MiGs 1-42 and 1-44 - rupees forty-two, rupees forty-four, respectively
• MiG-15 - keg of beer
• UTI MiG-15 - duckling
• MiG-21 - balalaika, cheerful
• MiG-23 - a little athlete
• MiG-25 - grocery store
• MiG-25RB - Buryonka
• MiG-27 - platypus
• meat - aircraft of the Myasishchev Design Bureau
• Rusks, drying - jet aircraft Sukhoi Design Bureau
• Knot - piston aircraft of the Sukhoi Design Bureau
• Su-47 - hands up (due to significant forward sweep wing)
• Tupolya is the OKB itself, its representatives
• Tupol, carcass, jerboa - any aircraft from the Tupolev Design Bureau
• Tu-134 - small carcass, blunt, whistle, fighter, teal, cigarette butt
• Tu-154 - ace, big carcass, Tupolev, fifty dollars, “Aurora” (because there are three engines), “steam locomotive”
• Yashka is a Yakovlev Design Bureau aircraft (not aerobatic). Most often refers to ed. 40, 42, 18/18T, 12.
• Yak-40 - cigarette butt, three-pipe giant, goby
• Yak-42 - pregnant cockroach, barn, cigar, silver carp
• Yak-50 - fifty dollars
• "lethal machine" - this is how some experts call aircraft
• banana - two-seater aircraft
• concrete mixer, saber dance, pear with a bow, aerodynamic error, spinner, helicopter, piggyback vehicle, round-helicopter
• primer - foreign aircraft operating with registration number eg DAFGH
• wooden - low-speed aircraft, not equipped with a transponder
• oaks - landing parachutes, Uteha - UT-15 parachute; forester - parachutist landing on a tree; summer resident - to the dacha
  
• sparka - training (combat) aircraft with two cabins
• herringbone, slanting herringbone, drunken herringbone - logo of the East Line Group
• ibal aviation, combat aviation - fighter-bomber (from the abbreviation IBA)
• brick - aircraft with low aerodynamic quality
• a brick with a bow is a light helicopter from the point of view of a serious pilot
• smoker, fart, piece of iron - any motor aircraft (glider)
• wet aviation - hydroaviation
• cormorants - naval aviation (from the point of view of all other aviation)
• divers - submariners (from the point of view of anti-submarine aviation)
• drychepopa - an aircraft with a low-power power plant (less than 100 forces)
• pornoplane - paraglider
• sheet, rag - hang glider
• helicopter-winged trashchmidt - traffic police helicopter or any aircraft of the Ministry of Internal Affairs
• barn - transport plane; Columbine - large transport aircraft
• sprocket - VTA board
• whistle - a jet aircraft, especially a light one
• haymower - propeller plane
• sawmill - a loudly humming propeller plane
• glass - fiberglass aircraft
• teshka - an aircraft in the “T” modification. Most often refers to the Yak-18T, then in descending order - Il-76T, Il-18T, An-24T
• Fakers - Fokker aircraft
• sausage - wide-body airliner (sausage - narrow-body)
• heron - Concord
• real estate - decommissioned (dead) aircraft

Free decoding of abbreviations

• Civil Air Fleet (Civil Air Fleet) - Shit in a Cap
• DOSAAF - Voluntary Society of Those Decommissioned from Aviation and Navy
• cadet - Colossal Universal Labor Force, Absolutely Unwilling to Work
• PTL (parachute PTL-72) - Dumb Pilot's Parachute
• PPiO-01 - Trial and Error Device (cadet)
• PDSP - Shelter for Decommissioned Pilots
• AUVVSM - Automatic Height Leveling Indicator, Strongly Foul (installed at the instructor pilot’s workplace)
• KGSh (canopy navigator's head) - briefcase for maps, collections
• net - Soviet Aviation Man of Special Quality
• Masandra - Mikoyan Anastas Son of the Armenian People Gave Joy to Aviation

From flight school

• bastards - cadet boots
• kulpovka - cadet cap
• straps - straps
• oaks - ornament on the visor KVS
• rooks, kursuli - aviation school cadets
• marvelous pepper - a young graduate of a flight school
• long drive - toilet at school
• go to the drive - go take a leak
• bread card - VLEK certificate
• Kaluga - KALTU
• wrinkle - severe punishment
• instructor to cadet: “Tu-2S for your subject!” (Tight, Two, Sit down). In general, this was the plane, designed by Tupolev.
• support your pants - prevent breaks in types of flight training
• yellow sheet - a grandiose group regimental "outing into nature" on the occasion of the end of flights with cadets in September - October
• shalopaevka - SHVLP (higher flight training school)

Aviation principles

• Don’t leave braking for the end of the lane, flying for the end of the month, love for old age. ( Option: What's behind is not a stripe!)
• The word “last” in aviation is used only in relation to a person who is no longer alive, or who has been permanently written off, or in relation to an airplane that will never fly again. In other cases, they are replaced by equivalents: “extreme”, “final”, “final”.
• If the question is whether to fly or not to fly, then the decision must be unequivocal: not to fly.
• During aviation chemical work, a pilot can be hampered by three “Ps”: booze, girlfriend and weather.
• ... was sent as far as possible only at the airfield.
• your ass is covered in oil, your nose is covered in grease, but at Aeroflot it’s about the technicians

Aviation toasts

• To ensure that the number of takeoffs coincides with the number of landings!
• A pilot is walking along the airfield, holding a glass of vodka in his hand. He passes by an airplane with a technician working on it. He stopped, looked for a long time, then asked: “Hey, man. What are you doing?” Technician: "Flaps."
• Pilot (raising his glass): "Oh!!! For the wings!" (drinks in one gulp).
• One day a shepherd was tending a flock of sheep high in the mountains. Suddenly a large eagle swooped down, grabbed the fattest ram and carried it to the mountains. The shepherd raised his gun and fired... The eagle fell, and the ram flew on. So let's drink so that the rams don't fly and the eagles don't fall!
  For those who are like a bird in the sky,
  For those who fall from heaven dying,
  For those who dream about their beloved at night,
  
• For those who serve in the Air Force!
• For the political vigilance of the flight crew!
• Not for the sake of drunkenness, but just for fun!
• For the moose: to drink, to sleep, to eat, to be loved - for the moose!
• So that we have everything and that we don’t have to pay anything for it!
• So that the tables are full of food, and the beds are full of pleasure!
• For having someone to share any mood with!

Despite the variety of types, all aircraft have the same basic units * that perform similar functions. Such units include: wing, fuselage, horizontal and vertical tail, landing gear and power plant (Fig. 1.2).

Rns. 1.2. Main components of the aircraft:
fusels: 1—fuselage: 2—radar fairing; 3—crew canopy: wing: 4—center section; 5—detachable part of the wing (GLASSES): 6—slats; 7th leroi:
5—aileron trimmer; 9— flaps; 10—interceptors; vertical tail: ll—KEEL; 12— rudder; 13—rudder trimmer; horizontal tail: 14—stabilizer: 15—elevator; 16—elevator trimmer; chassis-si: 17— front yoga chassis; 18—main landing gear leg; 19—chassis nacelle; power plant: 20—engine speed; 21—air intake

Let us consider the purpose of each of these units and provide the necessary information about them.
The wing creates lift when the aircraft moves in the air. The weight of the wing structure is approximately 10-14% of the aircraft's take-off weight.
In addition to lift, the wing provides lateral stability of the aircraft and carries lateral control elements - ailerons. Engines, main landing gear, external fuel tanks and weapons are often attached to the wing, and fuel is usually placed inside the wing. The wing is a beam of complex structure, loaded with aerodynamic forces and concentrated loads.
Airplanes with one wing (one lifting plane) are called monoplanes (see Fig. 1.2), with two wings located one above the other - biplanes (Fig. 1.3).
The wings of modern aircraft are equipped with flaps, pre-wings and other devices (see Fig. 1.2) that serve to improve the takeoff and landing characteristics of the aircraft. These devices are usually called wing mechanization devices.
The fuselage, or body of the aircraft, serves to accommodate the crew, passengers, cargo, sometimes engines, the front leg of the landing gear and to connect the main parts of the aircraft into one. The weight of the fuselage structure is approximately 6-9% of the aircraft's weight.
For seaplanes, the role of the fuselage is performed by a boat, which, in addition, allows for takeoff and landing on water.
The horizontal tail provides longitudinal stability * (stabilization) and control in the xOy plane (relative to the Oz axis, see Fig. 3.1). It consists of a fixed or limitedly movable part - the stabilizer and a movable part - the elevator.
The vertical tail provides directional stability and control in the xOz plane (relative to the O y axis). It consists of a fixed part - the keel and a movable part - the rudder.
On supersonic aircraft horizontal and sometimes vertical tails are made all-moving, i.e. completely controllable.
Weight of the horizontal and vertical tail makes up 1.5-3% of the aircraft's weight.
The landing gear is a system of supports on wheels (or skis) that provide the aircraft with take-off run, run after landing and movement on a land airfield. In all these cases, the landing gear absorbs static and dynamic loads and protects the aircraft structure from destruction.
The landing gear design must have sufficiently elastic elements that soften impacts and absorb the kinetic energy of the aircraft during landing and movement around the airfield.
The weight of the landing gear structure is about 4-7% of the aircraft's weight. Nowadays, almost all aircraft have landing gear that is retractable in flight.
Aircraft that take off and land from both land and water airfields are called amphibians. Such aircraft have a wheeled landing gear and a boat-shaped hull with underwing floats, allowing the aircraft to float on water in a normal position.
The power plant is designed to create traction force and is a complex of engines with units, systems and devices that ensure engine operation in various flight conditions.
With a piston engine, thrust is generated using propellers; with a turboprop - with the help of propellers and partially by gas reaction, with a jet and rocket - with the reaction of gases.

 

It might be useful to read:

• How to get on an excursion to Antarctica?;
• Czech Republic Troy Castle. Troja Castle in Prague. Ancient winery and museum;
• Böcklin and his “island of the dead” A cultural phenomenon of its time;
• Air tickets to Crimea Air tickets to Crimea will become cheaper;
• What you can and cannot take with you;
• Open left menu Heviz How to get from Budapest to Lake Heviz;
• Cable car in Nha Trang (Vinpearl) The longest cable car in the world Vietnam;
• Kamenets-Podolsk fortress - a historical monument of Ukraine Life outside the walls of the Kamenets-Podolsk fortress;