Traditions of the Maya, Aztecs and Incas. Names of Indian tribes: Mayans, Aztecs, Incas, Iroquois, Mohicans, Apaches. American Indians. Early civilizations - Chavin, Mochica, Nazca, Tiahuanaco, Chimu

Inca Empire

Like all enlightened peoples of antiquity, the Incas clothed the origins of their origins in the form of myths.
The most famous of them was conveyed to us by Garcilaso de la Vega in his Commentaries. He wrote it down from memory, from the words of his Indian contemporaries. This myth tells that Manco Capac and his sister-wife Mama Ocllo, fulfilling the will of their father Sun-Inti, emerged from the waters of Lake Titicaca to convert the savages who inhabited the surrounding lands to the path of civilization and create a great empire. From their father, they received a magical golden rod, which was supposed to show them where to establish the center of their state. Not far from the village of Pakari-Tambo, which lies at the foot of the Huanakauri hill, Manco Capac stuck this rod into the ground, and by the will of divine providence it went into it with great ease. This was a sign that the capital of the future empire was to be founded there. Such a manifestation of the highest will is quite comparable to an eagle holding a snake in its beak on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, where, as we remember, the Aztecs founded their state.

The main hero of Inca mythology was Manco Kalik. Like Quetzalcoatl among the Nahuas and Bochica among the Chibcha, he simultaneously combined the characteristics of a demigod and a great leader who led his subjects onto the path of civilization. Indeed, something truly great had to happen in order to preserve in the memory of generations down to the present day the legends about this man and the founder of the state, elevated to the level of a deity, which outlived time itself and the consistently destroyed culture at the origins of which he stood.

From there, the settlers reached the valley where the village of Pakari-Tambo was located. There they settled. Several centuries later, it was from this place that they began the conquest of the Cusco region and subsequently created their own state there. After Manco Capac, Tahuantinsuyu was ruled by 12 of his Inca successors. However, from the first of them, who lived in the 13th-14th centuries, Sinchi Roqui, Lloque Yupanqui, Maita Capac, Capac Yupanqui, Inca Roqui and Yahuara Huacaca, only names have reached us. True story The empire began with Viracocha Inca, who ruled in the first half of the 15th century. His ignominious flight to the village of Caquia, in the Shakishauan valley, while fleeing from the Chancas, led to the fact that his son Cusi Yupanqui Pachacutec became a hero liberator of the Incas.

All the deeds of the Incas, since the era of Pachacutec, were preserved for posterity with extreme care, since the Incas themselves highly valued their glory and had a clear understanding of the meaning of history. The constant focus of their activities to glorify Tawantinsuyu is evidenced by the creation of a special honorary post of the official historian of the empire, elected from the panaka of each Inca, in other words, from the numerous relatives of the ruler left by him after death, especially wives and children. The history of the empire was passed down from generation to generation, so that all its most important events were always fresh in the memory of the Quipucamayoc of each Panaka, even after the Spanish conquest. Valcárcel wrote that when the Spaniards came to Cuzco, they received the first information about the history of the Incas during the time of Vaca de Castro (Cristobal Vaca de Castro) from the surviving Quipucamayocs of each Panaka, who never mixed with each other.
It is thanks to this that we know about the battles of Pachacutec with the Aymara Cola on the shores of Lake Titicaca, about his campaigns against the peoples of the south of present-day Peru right up to the coast, and about everything else too.

According to legends, the founder of the Inca “empire” was the legendary Manco Capac, who bore the title Inca as a sign of his divine origin. There are several versions of the origin of Tawantinsuyu. According to one of them, Manco Capac and his sister-wife Mama Ocllo, fulfilling the will of their sun father - Inti and moon mother - Quilla, came out of the waters of Lake Titicaca to turn the savages who inhabited the surrounding lands onto the path of civilization and create a great " empire." From their father they received a magical golden rod, which was supposed to show them where to establish the center of the state. Not far from the village of Pakaritampu, which lay at the foot of the Huanakauri hill, Manco Capac stuck this rod into the ground, and by the will of divine providence it entered it with extraordinary ease. This was a sign that the capital of the future “empire” should be founded here.
In many ways, this myth is close to the myth of Tenochtitlan, built by the Aztecs on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. Today it is hardly possible to definitively answer whether Manco Capac really existed or is a mythical character. He combined the features of a demigod and a great leader who, like the legendary Maya-Toltec Quetzalcoatl-Kukulcan, led his subjects onto the path of civilization. The legendary Manco Capac founded a small state in the Cusco Valley. The emergence of this state, which later turned into the greatest “empire” of pre-Columbian America, can be roughly dated to the first half of the 13th century.

We still imagine what happened next very superficially. There are several different, sometimes very contradictory interpretations of the history of the Incas, especially its initial stage. The Incas began to emerge little by little from the fog of all kinds of myths and legends only around 1437 or 1438. In that harsh time for the inhabitants of Cusco, they encountered a worthy, strong opponent - the neighboring Indians - the Chancas.
According to one legend, the beginning of the war was unsuccessful for the Incas, and soon the Chancas, led by their victorious commanders Anco-Huallo, Astu and Tamai Huaranca, were already standing in front of the gates of Cuzco, like the great Carthaginian commander Hannibal in front of the Collin Gate of Rome. The panic began.
At the most critical moment of the many-hour bloody battle for Cuzco, when the initiative changed hands more than once and it was completely unclear who would be favored by capricious fortune, an ambush detachment of selected Incan warriors struck the rear of the advancing countless hordes of Chunks. The Incas have won! It was the bloodiest and most brutal battle in the history of ancient American wars. Thousands, if not tens of thousands of soldiers died on both sides. One of the Incas' most dangerous enemies was defeated and then turned into an ally.

Soon after this legendary and very difficult victory, Inca Pachacuti (or Pachacutec) became the ruler of the Incas.
Pachacuti Inca (1438-1471) was one of the key figures in the history of the Inca "empire". The year 1438 should probably be considered the beginning of its creation. The historicity of his personality is beyond doubt. He reorganized the army, increasing its combat effectiveness and increasing the number of generals. Under Pachacuti, the Incas' military campaigns took place in the southern and southeastern directions: in an exceptionally stubborn struggle, the Incas captured the lands of the Aymara Indians along the shores of Lake Titicaca, took possession of colossal herds of llamas and alpacas (a type of llama) - almost hundreds of thousands of heads. For those times, it was an outstanding victory and enormous wealth. From now on, the armies of Cuzco no longer needed Vehicle ah, clothes and food. The capture of these herds meant no less to the Incas than the later capture of their treasures meant to the Spaniards. Pachacuti declared animals “royal” property, and founded the richest temples on the islands of Lake Titicaca. As a result of his conquests, the foundations of the huge Incan “empire” were laid, and he himself, in fact, became the first “emperor” of the Incas - the “creator” “emperor”. Pachacuti was one of the most outstanding personalities in ancient American history - warrior, politician, philosopher, historian, architect, poet.

While the winner of the Chunks and Aymara, Pachacuti, fought near Lake Titicaca, his heir grew up, Tupac (Topa) Yupanqui, whose military glory would later eclipse his father’s. (It is believed that Pachacuti had about 100 sons and 50 daughters in total.) The relationship between Pachacuti and Tupac Yupanqui, as often happens between strong personalities, even when they are closely related, was apparently tense, if not outright hostile. However, in the great northern campaign they both acted together. As a result, the northern border of Tahuantinsuyu ran through the territory of modern Ecuador, and the size of the Inca state became equal to the area of ​​modern Great Britain.
In 1471, shortly before the death of his father Pachacuti, Tupac Yupanqui became the new Inca. Tupac Yupanqui (1471-1493) significantly expanded the boundaries of the Incan “empire”, uniting the entire ancient Peruvian ecumene, and entered the pre-Columbian history of South America as an “emperor” - a conqueror.
Legends tell different stories about the numerous military campaigns of this Peruvian Alexander the Great. According to one of them, unexpectedly and quickly invading Chimor - the largest state on the territory of Peru, the most dangerous for the Incas - he quickly took possession of it. The ruler of Chimora, the powerful Minchansaman, did not expect such a powerful blow from the north, where the Chimorans did not have a common border with the Incas, and therefore no fortifications. The victory over Chimor, which was more developed than the Inca state, stretched along a narrow (50-70 km) and long (about 1 thousand km) strip along the coast, gave the Incas access to the Pacific Ocean. One after another, the rich Peruvian coastal valleys and the capital of Chimora at the mouth of the Moche River were captured. The largest city pre-Hispanic South America Chan-Chan (area 26 km) with a population of about 20-30 thousand people. After the defeat, Chan-Chan was deserted.
Having conquered Chimora, the Incas apparently captured untold wealth. The Spaniards did not find such treasures anywhere in America as in the tombs of the “kings” and nobles of Chimora they plundered. Their total cost was a fantastic amount for those times - about a million (!) Spanish gold castellanos. It can be assumed that most of the gold that the Indians collected as a ransom for Inca Atahualpa, who was captured later, in 1532, by the Spaniards, was either looted on the coast by the Incas sixty years earlier, or, at least, processed by the hands of the most skilled Chimora craftsmen - jewelers stolen from Chan Chan to Cuzco.

There were no more trips to the north. This is explained quite simply: the Incas were mountain dwellers and felt out of place when they found themselves in an unusual natural and climatic zone located several kilometers below their own. This is partly why the Incas’ forays into the coastal plain of Ecuador were unsuccessful: the hot, swampy terrain turned out to be unattractive for people accustomed to the clean, cool mountain air. Moreover, in mountainous areas The Ecuadorian armies of Tupac Yupanqui had to fight grueling and not always successful battles with freedom-loving and warlike local tribes. It is possible that the Ecuadorian leaders sent some kind of irregular tribute to the Incas, but they largely retained their independence. There was no further advance of the Incas north to the Chibcha-Muica Indians and even further north, towards Mesoamerica.
If the elderly Pachacuti still witnessed the conquest of Chimora (around 1471) (perhaps he was one of the initiators of this campaign), then a new southern campaign took place after his death. Tupac Yupanqui's march to the south is the largest military operation in the history of pre-Columbian America.

At the head of a huge army, Tupac Yupanqui marched across what is now Bolivia to northern part modern Argentina, then crossed the Andes again, entered the deserted Atacama Desert in the north of what is now Chile, moving more than a thousand kilometers to the south. But he was unable to cross the Maule River. Having encountered courageous and fierce resistance from the Chilean Araucanavi (Mapuche), he was forced to stop. Here lies the southern border of Tawantinsuyu.
Thus, the “empire” included vast territories located in southwestern Bolivia, northwestern Argentina and northern Chile, approximately equal in area to all its other lands. It is difficult to say whether the Incas knew, when undertaking a southern campaign, that in that area there were rich deposits of copper and precious metals. In any case, it seems that this area was the ultimate goal of Tupac Yupanqui.
Although after Tupac Yupanqui there were attempts to expand the borders of the state even further, including to the east (in the humid and hot Amazon, Incan troops died or returned from there with nothing), in general the borders of the “empire” remained almost unchanged. The followers of Pachacuti and Tupac Yupanqui had to think not so much about conquest as about protecting the borders of their huge “empire.” For this purpose, the Incas built a number of fortresses along the eastern border of Tawantinsuyu and connected them with a stone wall stretching along the mountain ridges almost 200 km long - an American version of the Great Chinese wall. True, unlike its ancient Chinese counterpart, the “Great Wall of Peru” was not so powerful, having rather a symbolic meaning. Its height did not exceed the height of a man, and therefore it was suitable only for repelling the onslaught of an enemy unfamiliar with the art of a proper siege. Only the eastern border of the “empire” required constant protection from Tahuantinsuyu’s warlike neighbors - the Guarani Indians, Diaguita, etc.
In 1493, Tupac Yupanqui died, poisoned, according to some legends, by one of his many concubines. His youngest son, a native of Quito (Ecuador), Huayna Capac (1493-152?), who found himself on the throne thanks to the cunning palace intrigues of his uncle, the famous military leader Huaman Achachi, inherited a huge “empire”, which had no equal in all of Indian history. America. From north to south it extended for almost 5 thousand km, and its territory was 2,754 thousand km 2. Huayna Capac worthily completed the work of his father and grandfather, seizing Ecuadorian lands and defending the borders of the “empire” in the southeast from the claims of the warlike Chiriguanos to carangas, and in the south - the indomitable Chilean Araucanas.

However, first of all, he had to set about establishing order within the “empire,” which had grown enormously as a result of the campaigns of his grandfather and father. Dozens of large and hundreds of small pucaras, with garrisons of soldiers, sometimes numbering several thousand soldiers, ensured the protection of the “empire” from both external and internal enemies who rebelled against the Incan rule of the “kingdoms” and “provinces” that peacefully or violently entered into composition of Tahuantinsuyu (and there were many of them - more than 200: Bilkas, Jauha, Bombao, Cajamalca, Guanca, Bombacome, Quito, Carangi, Hatunkana, Ayavire, Chuquiaba, Parna and others).

Participants in the largest uprising (on the island of Puna, off the coast of present-day Ecuador) were dealt with very cruelly: every tenth rebel was thrown into the sea or stabbed, beheaded, quartered, stoned to death, hanged, etc. Not everything was calm at court either. “emperor”: one of his many uncles, the Inca Hualpaya, tried to poison him in order to free the throne for his own son... It failed.

Huayna Capac was the last Inca to rule Tahuantinsuyu before the arrival of the Spaniards. During the years of his long reign, most of which he spent in the north, in the city of Quito, this ruler managed to do a lot to strengthen the Inca “empire”, remaining in the people’s memory as an “emperor”-administrator, “emperor”-peacemaker. When Huayna Capac suddenly died (from the plague or from smallpox, or perhaps from some other disease, the epidemic of which then swept across the entire north of the “empire”), without having time to name an heir, his eldest legitimate son, the arrogant Huascar, took the throne in Cuzco .
At that time in Quito, Huayna Capac's favorite city ( northern capital Tahuantinsuyu), ruled by one of Huascar's half-brothers - the independent and power-hungry Atahualpa. Having decided to use the death of his father in his own interests and the interests of the clan of the Kyoto (Ecuadorian) aristocracy, he stated that Huayna Capac, when dying, bequeathed to divide Tawantinsuyu into two parts: supposedly such a huge “empire” had become difficult to govern from one center, and that the northern half of the state he should rule - Atahualpa. As a result, when far in the north (in Panama) a “pack of hungry dogs” - Spanish conquistadors - led by the adventurer Francisco Pizarro, was preparing to conquer the treasures of the legendary Tahuantinsuyu - the most powerful tree of the non-American “empire” - a merciless struggle for the throne broke out between two brothers, which led to a bloody feud.
In the end, in 1532, the ambitious Atahualpa won, under whose command were the best Inca military leaders who had served his father - Quisquis (Keskis) and Chilco-Chim (Calcuchima) - and selected troops, selflessly devoted to him, trained under Huayna Capaque - Inca Guard. In this internecine war, the “empire” lost its former power.

Huascar was captured and imprisoned, but it was he who was the truly legitimate heir to the throne, since he was the son of Huayn Capac and his sister, i.e., according to the Inca rules, a legitimate wife - coyo. However, Atahualpa was only a bastard, that is, an illegitimate son from the marriage of Huayn Capac with his beloved wife, or rather, his concubine - the incomparable beauty Tokto Coca, the daughter of the leader of the Cara tribe (the former “king” of the city of Quito). Despite the capture of Huascar, the population of Tahuantinsuyu still recognized Huascar as the legitimate Inca.
At the end of 1532, or at the beginning of 1533, Huascar was killed on the orders of his usurper brother, and then Atahualpa himself fell at the hands of the Spanish conquistadors (1533).

Other Incas ascended the throne... The last of them was Tupac Amaru, executed by the Spaniards only in 1572. However, after the conquest of the “empire” by the Spaniards, the power of the Inca “emperors” was largely illusory. They “ruled” only in the very remote, high-mountainous regions of Tahuantinsuyu, which had not yet been conquered by the conquistadors, where in 1539 the so-called New Inca kingdom was created with its center in Vilcabamba.

Inca cities: Vilcabamba - Vilcasuaman - Vitcos - Gran Pajaten - Ingapirca - Incalyahta - Incahuasi (Ayacucho) - Incahuasi (Cañete) - Corihuairachina - Cusco - Machu Picchu - Moray - Ollantaytambo - Paititi - Payhan - Paccaritampu - Pachacamac - Pisac - Puca Pucara - Puma Punku - Raqchi - Sacsayhuaman - Tambo Colorado - Tambomachay - Tarahuasi - Tipon - Tiwanaku - Tucume - Tumebamba - Huamanmarca - Huinay Huayna - Uchkus Incañan - Uchuy Cosco - Chinchero - Choquequirao - Chincal - Yucay - Gran Vilaya - Vilcavain - Guitarrero (cave) - Pañamarca - Apurimac - Toro Muerto - Pikimachay - Pumacocha - Cumbe Mayo - Quenco - Coricancha - Moray - Picillacta - Puyupatamarca - Raqchi - Rumicolca - Tambomachay - Tarahuasi - Tipon - Huayna Picchu - Huamanmarca - Huinay Huayna - La Libertad - Gran Pajaten - Temple of the Sun - Temple of the Moon - El Brujo - Lambayeque - Lima - Acaray - Aspero - Buena Vista - Cantamarca - Paramonga - Pachacamac - Pucllana - Puruchuco - Puno - Silustani - Xicairumoco - Tacna - Toquepala - Huancavelica - Huanuco

Mayan civilization

Maya - a group of Indian peoples related by language. Where did these peoples come from? How did they appear in the jungle? Central America? There is no exact answer to these and other questions. Today, one of the main points of view on this issue is that America was settled from Asia through the Bering Strait during the Upper Paleolithic period, i.e. approximately 30 thousand years ago.
The Mayans are one of the brightest civilizations of pre-Columbian America. This is a “mystery culture”, a “phenomenon culture” full of contradictions and paradoxes. She gave birth great amount questions, but not all have answers. The Mayans, living practically in the Stone Age (they did not know metals until the 10th century AD, wheeled carts, plows, pack and draft animals), created an accurate solar calendar, the most complex hieroglyphic writing, used the concept of zero before the Arabs and Hindus, predicted solar and lunar eclipses, calculated the movements of Venus with an error of only 14 seconds per year, and achieved amazing perfection in architecture, sculpture, painting and ceramics. They worshiped their gods and at the same time obeyed kings and priests, built temples and palaces under their leadership, performed ritual ceremonies, sacrificed themselves, and fought with their neighbors.
The Mayans created cities that were extraordinary in themselves, built only on muscle power. And for some reason, almost all cities of the classical period bear traces of violent destruction. Currently, more than 200 ruins of ancient cities are known. Full list famous Mayan cities Here.

In ancient times, the Mayans represented various groups that shared a common historical tradition. Due to this, the characteristics of their cultures were similar, their physical features were the same, and they spoke languages ​​belonging to the same linguistic branch.
When studying the Mayan civilization, several periods are distinguished. Their names and chronology are as follows:
- Early Preclassic (about 2000 – 900 BC)
- Middle Preclassic (900 – 400 BC)
- Late Preclassic (400 BC – 250 AD)
- early classical (250 – 600 AD)
- late classical (600 – 900 AD)
- postclassical (900 – 1521 AD)

This rigorous scientific information in no way explains why the Mayan cities began to decline, their populations to decline, and civil strife to intensify.
But the processes that finally destroyed great civilization, which took place during the colonial period, which lasted from 1521 to 1821, are completely obvious. Great humanists and Christians - not only did they introduce influenza, smallpox and measles - but formed their colonies on the American continent with fire and sword.
What previously did not benefit the Mayans - fragmentation and the absence of a single control center of the state - did not benefit the conquerors either. Each city was a separate warlike state, and more and more efforts had to be made to seize the territory.

And the Mayan cities were built with great skill and scope. Worth mentioning are Lamanai, Cahal Pech, El Mirador, Calakmul, Tikal, Chichen Itza, Uxmal, Copan. Some of these cities existed for more than a millennium. The ruins of each of them are a gift to archaeologists, historians and tourists.
Of great interest are the ideas of an extinct civilization about time and space. The cyclical time of the Maya, associated with natural and astronomical phenomena, was displayed in various calendars. According to one of the predictions, the next (last) cycle will end on December 22, 2012. The end of the cycle will be marked by a flood, after which this world will perish, a new universe will be born and a new cycle will begin... Well, we have every chance to verify the reliability of the Mayan predictions.

During the 1st - early 2nd millennium AD, the Maya people, speaking various languages ​​of the Maya-Kiche family, settled over a vast territory, including southern states Mexico (Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo), the present-day countries of Belize and Guatemala, and the western regions of El Salvador and Honduras. These areas, located in the tropical zone, are distinguished by a variety of landscapes. In the mountainous south there is a chain of volcanoes, some of which are active. Once upon a time, powerful coniferous forests grew here on generous volcanic soils. In the north, the volcanoes give way to the limestone mountains of Alta Verapaz, which further north form the limestone Petén plateau, characterized by a hot and humid climate. Here the center of development of the Mayan civilization of the classical era was formed. The western part of the Petén plateau is drained by the Pasion and Usumacinta rivers, which flow into the Gulf of Mexico, and the eastern part by rivers carrying water to the Caribbean Sea. North of the Petén plateau, humidity decreases with the height of forest cover. The northern Yucatecan plains are humid rainforests are replaced by shrubby vegetation, and on the Puuk hills the climate is so arid that in ancient times people settled here along the shores of karst lakes (cenote) or stored water in underground reservoirs (chultun). On the northern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, the ancient Mayans mined salt and traded it with the inhabitants of the interior regions.

It was initially believed that the Maya lived in large areas of tropical lowlands in small groups, practicing slash-and-burn agriculture. With the rapid depletion of soils, this forced them to frequently change their settlement sites. The Mayans were peaceful and had a special interest in astronomy, and their cities with tall pyramids and stone buildings also served as priestly ceremonial centers where people gathered to observe unusual celestial phenomena. According to modern estimates, ancient people The Maya numbered more than 3 million people. In the distant past, their country was the most densely populated tropical zone. The Mayans knew how to maintain soil fertility for several centuries and transform unsuitable soils. Agriculture land in a plantation where maize, beans, pumpkins, cotton, cocoa and various tropical fruits were grown. Mayan writing was based on a strict phonetic and syntactic system. The decipherment of ancient hieroglyphic inscriptions has refuted previous ideas about the peaceful nature of the Mayans: many of these inscriptions report wars between city-states and captives sacrificed to the gods. The only thing that has not been revised from previous ideas is the exceptional interest of the ancient Mayans in the movement of celestial bodies. Their astronomers very accurately calculated the cycles of movement of the Sun, Moon, Venus and some constellations (in particular, the Milky Way). The Mayan civilization, in its characteristics, reveals commonality with the nearest ancient civilizations of the Mexican Highlands, as well as with the distant Mesopotamian, ancient Greek and ancient Chinese civilizations.

In the archaic (2000-1500 BC) and early formative periods (1500-1000 BC) of the preclassic era, in the lowlands of Guatemala, small semi-wandering tribes of hunters and gatherers lived, eating wild edible roots and fruits, as well as game and fish. They left behind only rare stone tools and a few settlements that definitely date back to this time. The Middle Formative Period (1000-400 BC) is the first relatively well-documented era of Mayan history. At this time, small agricultural settlements appeared, scattered in the jungle and along the banks of the rivers of the Peten plateau and in the north of Belize (Cuelho, Colha, Kashob). Archaeological evidence suggests that in this era the Mayans did not have pompous architecture, class divisions or centralized power. However, during the subsequent Late Formative Period of the Preclassic era (400 BC - 250 AD), major changes occurred in Mayan life. At this time, monumental structures were built - stylobotes, pyramids, ball courts, observed rapid growth cities. Impressive architectural complexes are being built in cities such as Calakmul and Tsibilchaltun in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico), El Mirador, Yashactun, Tikal, Nakbe and Tintal in the jungle of Peten (Guatemala), Cerros, Cuello, Lamanay and Nomul (Belize), Chalchuapa (El Salvador).

There was a rapid growth of settlements that arose during this period, such as Kashob in northern Belize. At the end of the late formative period, barter trade developed between settlements remote from each other. The most prized items are items made from jade and obsidian, sea shells and quetzal bird feathers. At this time, sharp flint tools and the so-called appeared for the first time. eccentrics - products made of stone itself weird shape, sometimes in the form of a trident or the profile of a human face. At the same time, the practice of consecrating buildings and arranging hiding places where jade products and other valuables were placed was developed. During the subsequent Early Classic period (250-600 AD) of the Classical era, Maya society developed into a system of rival city-states, each with its own royal dynasty. These political entities revealed commonality both in the system of government and in culture (language, writing, astronomical knowledge, calendar). The beginning of the early classical period approximately coincides with one of the oldest dates recorded on the stela of the city of Tikal - 292 AD, which, in accordance with the so-called. The "long count of the Maya" is expressed in numbers 8.12.14.8.5. The possessions of individual city-states of the classical era extended on average 2000 square meters. km, and some cities, such as Tikal or Calakmul, controlled significantly larger territories.
Political and cultural centers Each state entity had cities with magnificent buildings, the architecture of which was local or zonal variations of the general style of Mayan architecture. The buildings were located around a vast rectangular central square. Their facades were usually decorated with masks of the main gods and mythological characters, carved from stone or made using relief techniques. The walls of long narrow rooms inside buildings were often painted with frescoes depicting rituals, holidays, and military scenes. Window lintels, lintels, palace staircases, as well as free-standing steles were covered with hieroglyphic texts, sometimes interspersed with portraits, telling about the deeds of the rulers. On lintel 26, in Yaxchilan, the ruler's wife is depicted helping her husband put on military regalia. In the center of Mayan cities of the classical era, pyramids rose up to 15 m high. These structures often served as tombs for revered people, so kings and priests practiced rituals here with the goal of establishing a magical connection with the spirits of their ancestors.

Ritual game the ball was important in the Mayan religion. In almost every large settlement The Maya had one or more similar sites. It is, as a rule, a small rectangular field, on the sides of which there are pyramidal platforms from which the priests watched the ritual. Meanwhile, there was a cult of the game. In the Popol Vuh, an invaluable collection of Mayan myths, the ball game is mentioned as a game of the gods: the death deities Bolon Tiku (or as they are called in the text, the Lords of Xibalba, i.e. the underworld) and two brothers of the demigod Hun competed in it. Ahpu and Xbalanque. Thus, the players initiated on stage one of the episodes of the struggle between good and evil, light and darkness, masculine and feminine, snake and jaguar. The Mayan ball game, like similar games of other peoples of Mesoamerica, contained elements of violence and cruelty - it ended with human sacrifice, for the sake of which it was started, and playgrounds were framed by stakes with human skulls.

Most northern cities built in the Postclassic era (950-1500) lasted less than 300 years, with the exception of Chichen Itza, which survived until the 13th century. This city shows architectural similarities to Tula, founded by the Toltecs around 900, suggesting that Chichen Itza served as an outpost or was an ally of the warlike Toltecs. The name of the city is derived from the Mayan words "chi" ("mouth") and "itsa" ("wall"), but its architecture is so-called. Puuc style, violates the classical Mayan canons. For example, stone roofs of buildings are supported on flat beams rather than on stepped vaults. Some stone carvings depict Mayan and Toltec warriors together in battle scenes. Perhaps the Toltecs captured this city and over time turned it into a prosperous state. During the Postclassic period (1200-1450), Chichen Itza was for a time part of a political alliance with nearby Uxmal and Mayapan, known as the League of Mayapan. However, even before the arrival of the Spaniards, the League had collapsed, and Chichen Itza, like the cities of the classical era, was swallowed up by the jungle. In the Postclassic era, maritime trade developed, thanks to which ports emerged on the coast of Yucatan and nearby islands, for example, Tulum or a settlement on the island of Cozumel. During the Late Postclassic period, the Mayans traded slaves, cotton, and bird feathers with the Aztecs.
According to Mayan mythology, the world was created and destroyed twice before the third, modern era began, which began in European terms on August 13, 3114 BC. From this date, time was counted in two chronology systems - the so-called. long count and calendar circle. The long count was based on a 360-day annual cycle called tun, divided into 18 months of 20 days each. The Mayans used a base-20 rather than a decimal counting system, and the unit of chronology was 20 years (katun). Twenty katuns (i.e. four centuries) made up a baktun. The Mayans simultaneously used two calendar time systems - a 260-day and a 365-day annual cycle. These systems coincided every 18,980 days, or every 52 (365-day) years, marking an important milestone at the end of one and the beginning of a new time cycle. The ancient Mayans calculated time forward to 4772, when, in their opinion, the end of the current era would come and the Universe would once again be destroyed.

The families of rulers were entrusted with the obligation to perform the rite of bloodletting at every important event in the life of city-states, be it the consecration of new buildings, the onset of the sowing season, the beginning or end of a military campaign. According to Mayan mythology, human blood nourished and strengthened the gods, who, in turn, gave strength to people. It was believed that the greatest magical power possesses the blood of the tongue, earlobes and genitals. During the bloodletting ritual, thousands of people gathered in the central square of the city, including dancers, musicians, warriors and nobles. At the climax of the ceremonial action, the ruler appeared, often with his wife, and with a plant thorn or an obsidian knife he bled himself, making a cut on the penis. At the same time, the ruler's wife pierced her tongue. After this, they passed a rough agave rope through the wounds to increase the bleeding. Blood dripped onto strips of paper, which were then burned in the fire. Due to blood loss, as well as under the influence of drugs, fasting and other factors, ritual participants saw images of gods and ancestors in puffs of smoke.

Mayan society was built on the model of patriarchy: power and leadership in the family passed from father to son or brother. Classic Maya society was highly stratified. A clear division into social strata was observed in Tikal in the 8th century. At the very top of the social ladder were the ruler and his immediate relatives. Next came the highest and middle hereditary nobility, who had varying degrees of power, followed by retinues, artisans, architects of various ranks and status, below were rich but humble landowners, then simple communal farmers, and on the last steps were orphans and slaves . Although these groups were in contact with each other, they lived in separate city neighborhoods, had special responsibilities and privileges, and cultivated their own customs.

The ancient Mayans did not know the technology of metal smelting. They made tools mainly from stone, but also from wood and shells. With these tools, farmers cut down forests, plowed, sowed, and harvested crops. The Mayans did not even know the potter's wheel. When making ceramic products, they rolled clay into thin flagella and placed them one on top of the other or molded clay plates. Ceramics were fired not in kilns, but on open fires. Both commoners and aristocrats were engaged in pottery. The latter painted vessels with scenes from mythology or palace life.
Until now, the disappearance of the Mayan civilization is a subject of debate among researchers. At the same time, there are two main points of view regarding the disappearance of the Mayan civilization - ecological and non-ecological hypotheses.

Ecological hypothesis based on the balance of the relationship between man and nature. Over time, the balance has been upset: an ever-growing population is faced with the problem of a lack of quality soil suitable for agriculture, as well as a shortage of drinking water. The ecological extinction hypothesis of the Maya was formulated in 1921 by O. F. Cook.
Non-ecological hypothesis covers theories of various kinds, from conquest and pestilence to climate change and other catastrophes. They speak in favor of the Mayan conquest version archaeological finds items that belonged to another people of medieval Central America - the Toltecs. However, most researchers doubt the correctness of this version. The assumption that the cause of the crisis of the Mayan civilization was climate change, and especially drought, is expressed by geologist Gerald Haug, who studies climate change. Also, some scientists associate the collapse of the Mayan civilization with the end of Teotihuacan in Central Mexico. Some scholars believe that after Teotihuacan was abandoned, creating a power vacuum that also affected Yucatan, the Mayans were unable to fill this vacuum, which ultimately led to the decline of civilization.
In 1517, the Spaniards appeared in Yucatan under the leadership of Hernandez de Cordoba. The Spanish introduced diseases from the Old World previously unknown to the Mayans, including smallpox, influenza, and measles. In 1528, colonists under the leadership of Francisco de Montejo begin the conquest of northern Yucatan. However, due to geographical and political disunity, it would take the Spaniards about 170 years to completely subjugate the region. In 1697, the last independent Mayan city of Tayasal was submitted to Spain. Thus ended one of the most interesting civilizations of ancient Mesoamerica.

Mayan cities:

Guatemala: Aguateca - Balberta - Gumarkah - Dos Pilas - Ichimche - Ishkun - Yaxha - Kaminaljuyu - Cancuen - Quirigua - La Corona - Machaquila - Misco Viejo - Naachtun - Nakbe - Naranjo - Piedras Negras - Saculeu - San Bartolo - Ceibal - Cival - Tayasal - Takalik Abah - Tikal - Toposhte - Huaxactun - El Baul - El Mirador - El Peru

Mexico: Akanmul - Akanseh - Balamku - Bekan - Bonampak - Ichpich - Yaxchilan - Kabah - Calakmul - Coba - Comalcalco - Kohunlich - Labna - Mayapan - Mani - Nokuchich - Oshkintok - Palenque - Rio Bec - Sayil - Sakpeten - Santa Rosa Stampak - Tancah - Tonina - Tulum - Uxmal - Haina - Tsibilchaltun - Chakmultun - Chacchoben - Chikanna - Chinkultik - Chichen Itza- Chunchukmil - Shkipche - Xpuhil - Ek Balam - Edzna

Belize: Altun Ha - Karakol - Kahal Pech - Kueyo - Lamanai - Lubaantun - Nim Li Punit - Xunantunich

Honduras: Copan – El Puente

Salvador: San Andres - Tazumal - Hoya de Seren

Aztec Civilization

Aztecs (asteki) (self-identified) mē xihcah) - Indian people in central Mexico. Number of over 1.5 million people. The Aztec civilization (XIV-XVI centuries) had rich mythology and cultural heritage. The capital of the Aztec Empire was the city of Tenochtitlan, located on Lake Texcoco (Spanish). Texcoco), where the city of Mexico is now located.

In Nahuatl, the native language of the Aztecs, the word “Aztec” literally means “someone from Aztlan,” a mythical place located somewhere in the north. The modern use of the word "Aztec" as a term for peoples related by trade, custom, religion, and language was proposed by Alexander von Humboldt and adopted by 19th-century Mexican scholars as a means of distinguishing contemporary Mexicans from the indigenous Indian populations.
The Aztecs themselves called themselves “mexica”, or “tenochka” and “tlaltelolca” - depending on the city of origin (Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco). As for the origin of the word “meshika” (ast. Mexico, from which, in fact, the word “Mexico” comes), then very different versions of its etymology are expressed - the word “Sun”, in the Nahuatl language, the name of the Aztec leader - Mexitli (Mexitli, Mextli), a type of algae growing in Lake Texcoco.

The Aztec culture is associated with a cultural complex known as the Nahua due to its common language. According to legend, the various groups that would become the Aztecs came to the Anahuac Valley, around Lake Texcoco, from the north. The location of these valleys and lakes is known for sure - this is the heart of modern Mexico City, but it is not known for certain where the Aztec people come from.
Legend has it that the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlan, and belonged to the last of the seven Nahuatlacs(“Nahuatl speakers”, from the word “tlaca” meaning “person”). According to legend, the Aztecs were led by the god Huitzilopochtli, which means “left-handed hummingbird.” There is a well-known legend about an eagle sitting on a cactus on an island in the middle of a lake and eating a snake - an image from a prophecy that said that a new house should be founded in such a place. This scene - an eagle eating a snake - is depicted on the Mexican flag.

So, in 1256, the Aztecs stopped on a rock washed by a spring and surrounded by thickets aueuete. This was Chapultepec, then a forest. Lake Texcoco stretched out before them.
By the time the Aztecs arrived, the lands around Lake Texcoco had long been divided between coastal city-states. Having recognized the supreme power of the ruler of the city of Azcapotzalco, the Aztecs settled on two small islands and built Tlatelolco (Tlaltelolco). Tenochtitlan (city of Tenocha) was founded in 1325. Over time it got bigger artificial island, now this place is the center of Mexico City.
According to legend, when the Aztecs arrived in the Anahuac Valley, the local population considered them the most uncivilized group, but the Aztecs decided to learn; and they took all the knowledge they could from other peoples - mostly from the ancient Toltecs (whom they may have confused with the older civilization of Teotihuacan). For the Aztecs, the Toltecs were the creators of all culture, the word "Toltecayotl" was synonymous with culture. Aztec legends identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan (modern Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico), which they also identified with the more ancient Teotihuacan.

The Aztecs adopted and combined some traditions with their own; among them is the myth of the creation of the world, which describes four great eras, each of which ended in a universal catastrophe. Our era - Nahui Ollin, the fifth era, the fifth sun or the fifth creation - escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the god Nanahuatl, which means “all in wounds” (in Russian usually translated “all in buboes”; the smallest and humblest god who suffered from pain caused by a serious illness; he turned into the Sun). This myth is associated with the ancient city of Teotihuacan (literally - “place of transformation into a god”), which was already abandoned and abandoned at the time when the Aztecs came to the valley of modern Mexico City.

Another myth describes the Earth as the creation of two twin gods - Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. Tezcatlipoca lost his foot during the creation of the world, so he is depicted without a foot and with an exposed bone. In some varieties of the cult, Quetzalcoatl is also called the white Tezcatlipoca.
The Aztec Empire, like most European empires, was quite ethnically diverse; it was more of a unified system of tribute collection than a unified system of government. Although cities under Aztec rule were subject to heavy tribute, excavations show a steady increase in the wealth of the commoners after the subjugation of these cities. Trade was carried out even with enemy cities. The only people to defeat the Aztecs, the Purépecha, were the main producers of copper axes.
The main administrative contribution of the Aztecs was the system of communications between conquered cities.

In Mesoamerica, there were no draft animals or wheeled vehicles, and roads were built for travel on foot. Usually the construction of roads was part of the tribute. The roads were constantly monitored so that even women could travel alone; travelers could rest, eat, and even visit the restroom every 10-15 kilometers. Also, messengers constantly plied along these routes ( Painani), keeping the Aztecs informed of the latest events.
The creation of the Aztec empire led to one of the largest population explosions - the population of Mesoamerica increased from 10 to 15 million people.

The most important official of the government of Tenochtitlan, Europeans usually call the Aztec emperor. From the Nahuatl language, the title of the emperor is Huey Tlatoani (Act. HueyTlahtoani) roughly translates to "Great Orator". Tlatocque (at. tlatoque- “orators”) were the aristocracy, the highest class of society. The Tlatoani's power grew with the rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of Ahuizotl's reign, the title "tlatoani" can already be considered an analogue of the imperial one, but, as in the Holy Roman Empire, it was not inherited.
From 1397 to 1487, the empire was led by Tlacaelel ( Tlahcaé lel from Nahuatl - “brave heart”). He could become tlatoani, but chose to remain in the shadow of the jaguar's mat. Tlacaelel was a nephew tlatoani Itzcoatl and brother of Chimalpopoca and Motecuzoma Ilhuicamina, and bore the title "Cihuacoatl" (after the goddess Chihuacoatl, the equivalent of an advisor). As it is written in Ramirez's manuscript: “what Tlacaelel ordered was carried out as quickly as possible.” He was a tough reformer, he created a new structure for governing the country, ordered the burning of most Aztec books, claiming that they were all lies, and rewrote the history of the Aztecs. In addition, Tlacaelel reformed the religion, placing the tribal god Huitzilopochtli on the same level as the ancient gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. His exploits include (perhaps exaggerating) the introduction of the custom of “flower wars” and the establishment of constant human sacrifices so that the Sun continued to move across the sky.
By the time of the Conquest, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panukodo rivers to the Mayan lands. Separate colonies existed on the lands of Guatemala. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not submit to the Aztecs.

Traditionally, society was divided into two social strata, or classes: the macehualli, or peasantry, and the pilli, or nobles. Initially, the status of the nobility was not inherited, even among sons pilly had better access to resources and training, so it was easier for them to become pilly. Over time, social status began to be inherited. In a similar way, Aztec warriors became pilly thanks to his military achievements. Only those who took captives in war could become permanent warriors, and over time, military glory and the spoils of war made them pilli. Once an Aztec warrior captured four or five captives, he was called tekihua, and he could achieve the rank of Eagle or Jaguar. Later he could gain rank tlacateccatl or tlacochcalcatl. To become tlatoani, it was necessary to capture at least 17 prisoners. When a young man came of age, he did not cut his hair until he captured his first captive. Sometimes two or three young men united for this purpose, then they were called yak. If after a certain time - usually three battles - they could not take a prisoner, they became masehualli. It was considered a disgrace to be a warrior with long hair, signifying the absence of prisoners, but there were also those who preferred to be macehualli.

The rich spoils of war led to the emergence of a third class that was not part of the traditional Aztec society - post office, or traders. Their activities were not exclusively commercial; the Poste were also good spies. The warriors despised them, however, one way or another, they gave them the loot in exchange for blankets, feathers, slaves and other goods.

Slaves, or tlacotin, also formed an important class distinct from prisoners of war. This slavery was also very different from what was observed in the European colonies, and had many similarities with the slavery of classical antiquity. Firstly, slavery was personal, not inherited, the children of a slave were free. A slave could have personal property, and even his own slaves. Slaves could buy their freedom, and slaves could be freed if they were able to prove that they had been mistreated, or had children with their owners, or were married to their owners.
Typically, upon the death of the owner, those slaves whose work was highly valued were freed. The remaining slaves were passed on as part of the inheritance.

An Aztec could become a slave as punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered man at her request. A father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared his son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay their debts could also be sold as slaves.
In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new owner. This was usually the lot of unlucky gamblers and old "auini" - courtesans or prostitutes.
Although it was possible to drink pulque, a fermented drink with a low alcohol content, the Aztecs were forbidden to get drunk before reaching the age of sixty. Violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.

As in modern Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was tlachtli, an Aztec version of the ancient Mesoamerican game ulama. This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called "ollie", where the Spanish "ule" comes from. hule), meaning rubber.
According to other sources, the ball was made of stone, and playing it was characterized by extraordinary cruelty - the weight of the ball was so great that it was a big problem to throw it into a special ring located high enough without causing physical harm to oneself. A good "incentive" to play was the fact that members of the losing team were sacrificed.
Aztec cities usually had two special complexes for this game. Players could hit the ball with their hips. The goal of the game was to throw the ball through a stone ring. The lucky player who managed to do this was given the right to take away the audience's blankets, so victory was accompanied by running, screaming and laughter. People bet on the results of the game. The poor could stake their food, the pillis could stake their wealth, the "tekutli" ( owners) could put their concubines or even cities on the line, and those who had nothing put their freedom on the line and risked becoming slaves.
The ritual ball game ended with the sacrifice of the best player or captain of the winning team (however, according to other sources - the captain and players of the losing team).

In Mesoamerica and South America, during the heyday of the Aztec state, sacrifices were widespread; however, the Aztecs practiced them on a special scale, sacrificing people on each of the 18 holidays of their sacred calendar.
It should be noted that a person was not always sacrificed. Animal sacrifices were frequent, for which the Aztecs bred a special breed of llamas. They also sacrificed things - they broke them in honor of the gods. The cult of Quetzalcoatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds. Self-sacrifice was also practiced; during special ceremonies, people inflicted wounds on themselves, performing ritual bloodletting, and wore special thorns that constantly wounded the body.
Blood was central to Mesoamerican cultures. There are many myths in which the Nahua gods sacrifice their blood to help humanity. In the myth of the Fifth Sun, the gods sacrifice themselves so that people can live. (All sacrifices are to maintain the energy of the sun, which, according to the Aztecs, gives them life)
All this prepared people for the highest sacrifice - human sacrifice. Usually the victim's skin was painted with blue chalk (the color of the sacrifice); then the victim was brought to the top platform of a huge pyramid. Here the victim was laid on a stone slab, the victim’s stomach was cut with a ritual knife (it is difficult to open the chest with an obsidian knife), after which the victim’s heart was taken out and raised up to the Sun. The heart was placed in a special stone vessel - kuauchikalli or chak-mool, and the body was thrown onto the stairs, from where the priests dragged it away. The sacrifice was considered (and, as a rule, was) voluntary, but not in cases of prisoners. If faith was not enough, drugs could be used. Then the body parts were disposed of in various ways - the entrails were fed to animals, the skull was polished and displayed in tzompantli, and the rest was either burned or cut into small pieces and offered as gifts to important people. Recent (2005) archaeological evidence indicates the removal of muscle and skin from some of those found in the large temple complex remains.
There were other types of human sacrifice, including torture. The victim was shot with arrows, burned or drowned. It’s difficult to keep track of the measure here. Aztec chronicles describe how some 84,400 captives were sacrificed over four days to build the main temple. However, it is unclear how the city's population of 120,000 people was able to capture, house and dispose of so many captives, especially considering the fact that Ahuitzotl sacrificed them with his own hands. This equates to 17 sacrifices per minute for four days. Some scholars believe that the number of casualties could not have exceeded 3,000 and that the number of deaths was inflated for war propaganda purposes.

The Aztecs led the so-called « flower wars » (Spanish) guerrasfloridas) - special raids to capture captives, to perform sacrifices, which they called neshtlahualli - this was a kind of “debt payment to the gods” so that the sun could shine during the next 52-year cycle. The human soul-heart and soul-blood are necessary so that the world does not collapse - this idea underlay the practice of capturing people in subjugated lands, and the population was ordered to meet warriors with flowers in their hands (one of the reasons that gave the name “flower wars”).
It is not known whether the Aztecs performed sacrifices before they came to the Anahuac Valley, or whether they absorbed this custom as they absorbed many other customs and cultures. The sacrifices were originally dedicated to Xipe Totec, a northern Mesoamerican deity. Aztec records state that human sacrifice began during the reign of Tisoc. During the reign of Tlacaelel, human sacrifice became an integral part of Aztec culture, not only for religious but also for political reasons.

There is little information regarding Aztec cannibalism. There are only a few reports of cannibalism since the Conquest, none of which involve widespread ritual cannibalism. Typical reports of Aztec cannibalism:

Cortez writes in one of his letters that his soldiers caught an Aztec roasting a baby for breakfast.

Gomarra writes that during the capture of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards invited the Aztecs to surrender because they (the Aztecs) had no food. The Aztecs invited the Spaniards to attack, only to be captured and eaten.

In Bernardino de Sahagún's books there is an illustration showing an Aztec being roasted by an unknown tribe. The caption under the illustration says that this was one of the dangers that threatened Aztec traders.

In the annals of Ramirez, compiled by the Aztecs after the conquest, in the Latin alphabet, it is written that at the end of the sacrifice, the meat of the victim's palms was given as a gift to the warrior who captured it. According to the chronicle, meat was supposed to be eaten, but in fact it was replaced with turkey.

In his book, Juan Bautista de Pomar states that after the sacrifice, the body of the victim was given to the warrior who captured the victim, and then the warrior boiled it so that it could be cut into small pieces in order to offer them as gifts to important people in exchange for gifts and slaves; but this meat was rarely eaten, since it was believed that it had no value; it was replaced with turkey or simply thrown away.

Mochica Civilization

Among the early Peruvian civilizations, the Mochica culture (beginning and mid-1st millennium AD) deserves close attention. The section of the northern coast that constituted the Mochica territory is a hilly desert 30-40 km wide, bounded by the ocean and mountains, cut at intervals of 15-30 km by the valleys of small rivers originating in the Cordillera ranges. Two such valleys, Moche and Chicama, formed the core of the Mochica lands. The development of the Mochica culture covers five periods: 1-2 - the era of formation, 3 - the time of its rapid development, 4 - heyday, 5 - decline. The era from the end of the 2nd century to the beginning of the 4th (approximately 2nd - 5th centuries AD) was a time of radical restructuring of Mochic society, as evidenced by the widespread distribution of copper tools, the achievement of technological excellence in the production of ceramics, the construction of monumental complexes, the walls of which later they began to decorate with narrative paintings, the flowering of the art of vase painting and sculptural representation of the human face, and finally, the emergence of that socially stratified pantheon of deities, which serves as the object of this study. In the period of the 3rd or from the end of the 2nd centuries, the Mochica expansion began in the valleys south of the Moche (in Viru - the center of the Gallinazo culture, Santo, Nepeño), which was apparently expressed either in establishing control over the local population (in Viru), or in mass migration (in Santa). During the 5th century, these lands were lost again.
The origins of Mochika remain unclear, but the Salinar culture and the traditions of earlier antiquities such as Kupisnike played a significant role in its development. Appearing on the eve of our era, Mochica existed until the 7th century, reaching its peak in the 3rd – 6th centuries. Its economic basis was highly developed irrigation agriculture. Natural fertilizers were widely used, primarily guano, which was mined on the coastal islands. The main agricultural tool was a digging stick made of hard wood with a long blade, sometimes copper. Agriculture was supplemented by the breeding of llamas and guinea pigs. Fishing and marine industries have traditionally played a major role in the economy. Small reed boats were used for fishing and sailing to offshore islands and along the coast.

The creators of the Mochica culture were excellent metallurgists and jewelers. At least already in the 2nd century. AD they melted copper, alloyed it with gold and silver. Probably, the technique of casting from a lost wax model and gilding of products by etching was known. Metal was used both for making jewelry and luxury items, and in everyday life (needles, awls, spindle whorls, fish hooks, etc.). In general, the metallurgy and metalworking of the Mochica culture are close to the Colombian tradition.
Both huge pyramids and dwellings were built from rectangular mud bricks - adobes. On the bricks great pyramids Moche Valley, geometric imprints were discovered that are interpreted as signs of communities that carried out labor duties in the construction of monumental structures of the Moche capital. The walls of temple buildings were covered with frescoes of mythological content. Images of mythical characters and scenes are found on objects made of metal and wood, on textiles and in huge quantities on ceramics.
The dead were buried in narrow pits, covered with rods and adobe. The dead were laid on their backs, wrapped in mats. Ordinary burials contained several vessels and other things. Along with such burials, richer ones are also known, for example, the burial of a “warrior-priest” in the Viru Valley, where an elderly man in a copper mask was buried, accompanied by the remains of a child, two women and a man. The grave contained a huge number of vessels, wooden staffs with carved inlaid pommels, feather items, headdresses and other items.

On the northern outskirts of the Mochic territory, in Sipan (Lambaeque Valley), the burial of a ruler was found, made between the middle of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. In the thickness of the adobe platform on which the temple buildings once stood, a rectangular grave was discovered, in which there was a wooden coffin with the remains of a man lying on his back. In his hands he held something like a golden scepter. The lower part of the face was covered with a golden mask, the body was wrapped in cloth. Below and above him there was a huge number of things of a prestigious nature - headdresses, gold jewelry with inlay, feather jewelry, precious shells, gold and bronze plates that replaced armor, gold standards, etc. The ruler was accompanied by two women and several men. A dog was buried with one of them. Countless ceramic vessels were discovered in the tomb.
In the same platform, another grave was found, plundered by professional grave robbers - huaqueros. It produces a number of magnificent pieces of jewelry. The presence of rich burials was also noted in the pyramids of the Moche Valley.

The center around which the Mochic unification formed at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD was the Moche and Chicama valleys, although Early Mochic materials were also found further north, in the Piura valley. In the 2nd-3rd centuries, the construction of pyramids began in the Moche Valley. Judging by the iconography and archaeological data, by the middle of the 1st millennium, the Mochica had already formed a state. It was at this time that its expansion to the south began, first to the Viru and Santa valleys, and in the 6th century, and further, to the Nepeña valley. In the following valleys - Casma and Culebras - there are no materials from the Mochica culture, but they were discovered even further south, in the Huarmey valley. Around the same time, the cultural territory expanded to the north, up to the Leche Valley.
In the 7th century, the Mochica civilization declines, and the southern valleys fall out of its control. It is possible that at that time there were two associations: a northern one with a center in Pampa Grande and a southern one, the capital of which was located on the site of the Galindo settlement, in the middle reaches of the Moche River. At the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century, as a result of the Inca invasion, the Mochica culture was conquered and ceased to exist.

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During the Great Geographical Discoveries, Europeans discovered previously unknown and unique Indian civilizations to the world. The Old World was amazed by the original culture and art of these peoples no less than by the countless treasures they possessed. The history of the civilizations of pre-Columbian America goes back to hoary antiquity. It is interesting not only in itself, but its influence on the development of the whole world is extremely important.

The first city-states of the people Mayan with a well-established management system appeared at the beginning of our era on the territory of modern Mexico and other states of Central America. The Maya are the only people of pre-Columbian America that had writing in the form of hieroglyphs. The Mayans wrote their books (codexes) with paints on long strips of material made from plant fibers, and then put them in cases. There were libraries at the temples. The Mayans had their own calendar and knew how to determine eclipses of the Sun and Moon. They were the first to introduce the concept of zero into mathematics.

Story Aztecs before their appearance in the second half of the 12th century. Central Mexico is full of mysteries. They called their homeland the island of Aztlan (“where the herons live”). The location of the island still remains unknown, but it is from here that the word “Aztec” comes. The nomadic Aztec hunters were very warlike and subjugated many Indian tribes. A powerful empire arose with its capital Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City).

The Aztecs were skilled farmers, had excellent skills in pottery and weapons crafts, and knew the secrets of metal processing. When Hernan Cortes took over the Aztec ruler Montezuma, he, in order to stop the advance of the conquerors, sent his ambassadors to meet them with gifts for the Spanish king. Among the many treasures were beautiful works of Indian craftsmen - magnificent dishes, exquisite jewelry, perfect figurines of animals. Such generosity, however, did not save Montezuma and his people from insidious destruction.

Unlike the bulk of Indian jewelry, mercilessly melted down by Europeans into gold bars, Montezuma's gifts were lucky. They went straight to the king and were therefore preserved. Over time they produced indelible impression on the wonderful German artist Albrecht Durer. He recalled: “In all my life I have never seen anything that would have gladdened my heart as much as these things. So, I saw among them wonderful, most perfect products and was amazed at such talent of people from distant countries.” Material from the site

The most big state Ancient America had an empire Incas with its center in the city of Cusco, located high in the mountains (in the territory of modern Peru). The Incas themselves called their homeland “Tauantinsuyu” - “four connected directions of the world.” Incas (the word itself meant "ruler") They deified the Sun and were excellent astronomers. They successfully farmed, raised herds of llamas, and produced high-quality fabrics. The Incas invented the original knotted writing - “quipu”. It was a cord to which multi-colored threads were tied in the form of pendants. Combining such threads made it possible to make the necessary “records”. One of the found samples of “khipu” weighs 6 kg. The city of Cusco greeted the European invaders with amazing palaces, temples and squares, and from the four gates of the capital, roads leading to the four corners of the world began.

Machu Picchu - the city of the Incas. Modern look

The Conquest destroyed ancient Indian civilizations. Entire states and cultures were wiped off the face of the earth. The Mayans, Aztecs, Incas and other pre-Columbian peoples of America themselves turned into slaves or were physically destroyed en masse. Thus, the Great geographical discoveries had sad and tragic pages in their history.

A little over ten years ago - on October 12, 1992, planet Earth celebrated one of the most significant dates in the history of mankind - the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America. There are many hypotheses about when man appeared in the Western Hemisphere, in North and South America, on numerous islands, and when people came to the American continent. For the fifth century now (since the 16th century), pundits have been debating this issue. In numerous studies on this topic, among the first inhabitants of America, people from Canary Islands, Phoenicians and Carthaginians, ancient Greeks and Romans, Jews, Spaniards, Egyptians and Babylonians, Chinese and even Tatars and Scythians.

Science developed, and as new discoveries were made, knowledge accumulated and hypotheses were selected. Today there is no longer any doubt that the part of the world marked on the world map as America was inhabited by people from other continents. However, from which ones exactly has not been finally decided. Nevertheless, scientists were able to identify many common features inherent in all Indians, bringing them closer to the Mongoloid peoples of Asia. The appearance of the original inhabitants of America at the time of their first meetings with Europeans was as follows: a stocky figure, short legs, medium-sized feet, rather long arms but with small hands, a high and usually wide forehead, poorly developed brow ridges. The Indian's face had a large, strongly protruding nose (often, especially in the north, the so-called eagle nose), and a rather large mouth. The eyes are most often dark brown. The hair is black, straight, thick.

Many early European documentary and literary sources indicated that the Indians were red-skins. This is actually not true. The skin of representatives of various Indian tribes is rather yellow-brown. According to modern researchers, the name “Redskins” was given to them by the first settlers. It did not arise by chance. The North American Indians once had a widespread custom of rubbing their faces and bodies with red ocher on special occasions. That's why Europeans called them redskins.

Currently, anthropologists distinguish three main groups of Indians - North American, South American and Central American, whose representatives differ in height, skin color and other characteristics.

Most researchers believe that the settlement of the American continent came from Asia through the Bering Strait. Scientists believe that four great glaciations helped ancient people overcome the expanse of water. According to this hypothesis, during the glaciations the Bering Strait froze and turned into some kind of huge bridge. Asian tribes who led a nomadic lifestyle freely moved along it to the neighboring continent. Based on this, the time of the appearance of man on the American continent was determined - this happened 10-30 thousand years ago.

At the time of the arrival of the Spanish caravels under the command of Christopher Columbus off the eastern coast of the New World (October 1492), North and South America, including the islands of the West Indies, were inhabited by many tribes and nationalities. With the light hand of the famous navigator, who assumed that he had discovered new lands of India, they began to be called Indians. These tribes were at different levels of development. According to most researchers, before the European conquest, the most advanced civilizations of the Western Hemisphere developed in Mesoamerica and the Andes. The term “Mesoamerica” was introduced in the 40s of the 20th century by the German scientist Paul Kirchoff. Since then, in archeology this has been used to designate a geographical region that includes Mexico and most of Central America (up to the Nicoya Peninsula in Costa Rica). It was this territory that, at the time of its discovery by Europeans, was inhabited by many Indian tribes and presented a colorful picture of the cultures that they represented. According to the correct definition of the Czech Americanist Miloslav Stingl, “these cultures were at different stages of development of tribal society, and the general laws of evolution characteristic of the primitive communal formation manifested themselves here in many local variants and forms.” Scientists include such cultures as the Olmec, Teotihuacan, Mayan, Toltec and Aztec among the most vibrant and developed civilizations of Ancient America (pre-Columbian period).

The study of the art of Ancient America and its history is relatively young. It dates back a little over a hundred years. American studies researchers currently do not have such rich material and achievements as are available today in the field of studying ancient art. They also experience great difficulties due to the fact that to support their conclusions obtained as a result of archaeological excavations and discoveries, they do not have as many written monuments as are, for example, at the disposal of researchers of the Ancient East. The ancient Americans developed writing much later and never reached a high level of development. The written monuments of the peoples of Mesoamerica that have reached us have not yet been sufficiently studied. Therefore, most information concerning political history, social system, mythology, conquests, titles and names of rulers is based only on Indian legends. Many of them were recorded after the Spanish conquest and date back to the first half of the 16th century. It is also important to remember that until this time, ancient American civilizations developed without any influence from European or Asian centers. Until the 16th century, their development proceeded completely independently.

The art of Ancient America, like any other art, has a number of features and characteristic features that are unique to it. In order to comprehend this originality, a dialectical approach is necessary, taking into account the historical conditions under which art and culture developed ancient civilizations Mesoamerica.

Scientists attribute the highest flowering of the culture of the Mayan Indian tribe to the 7th-8th centuries. The Aztec Empire reached the apogee of its development at the beginning of the 16th century. Very often, in the works of archaeological scientists and researchers of ancient cultural civilizations, the Mayan Indian peoples (as older people) are called by analogy “Greeks,” and the Aztecs (as they existed later) are called “Romans” of the New World.

The Mayan cultural traditions had enormous influence in the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador, as well as in several states of modern Mexico. The geographical boundaries of the distribution of this civilization were 325,000 km2 and covered the habitat of several dozen, and possibly hundreds of tribes. In general, the tribes inherited a single culture. However, in many ways it naturally had regional characteristics.

The Mayan civilization stood out primarily for its achievements in construction and architecture. Representatives of this nationality created exquisite and perfect works of painting and sculpture, had unique masters in stone processing and the manufacture of ceramic products. The Mayans had deep knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Their greatest achievement is their introduction of such a mathematical concept as “zero”. They began to use it hundreds of years earlier than other highly developed civilizations.

The Aztecs appeared in Central Mexico in the second half of the 12th century. No historical data about them has been found before this time. There are only a few legends and traditions from which it is known that they called the island of Aztlan (Aztlan) their homeland. One of the traditional descriptions of the supposed life of ancestors in Aztlan is known, allegedly compiled for the last of the pre-Hispanic rulers of the Aztec state, the famous Montezuma II the Younger, based on ancient manuscripts. According to this source, the ancestral home of Aztlan was located on an island (or was an island) where there was big mountain with caves that served as dwellings. From this word, which denoted the location of the island (Aztlan), came the name of the tribe - Aztecs (more precisely, Aztecs). However, science has not yet established the exact geographical position of this island.

In the earliest stages of their existence, the Aztecs were dominated by a nomadic lifestyle; they were mainly engaged in hunting. This left an imprint on their character. By nature they were very warlike. For almost two centuries, the Az-Tecs waged wars of conquest and at the beginning of the 14th century, having conquered many other tribes living in Central Mexico, they created a powerful empire. Around 1325, the city they founded, Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), became its capital.

Currently, interest in the study of ancient Indian civilizations has not faded away. Architectural monuments, sculpture, jewelry, household items discovered in places where peoples with an original, unique culture lived several thousand years ago, still conceal a lot of unsolved things. Understanding the history of pre-Columbian America, leading archaeologists and modern scientists are trying to find an explanation for many of the most important aspects of the life of ancient human communities.

When we hear the concepts “Inca”, “Maya” or “Aztec”, we are mentally transported overseas, to the mountains and jungles of the American continent. It was there that these Indian tribes, little known to mankind, lived - the creators of the civilization of the Incas, Aztecs and Mayans, about whom we will briefly talk further. From history we only know about them that they were skilled craftsmen. The Incas built big cities, connected by roads that looked as if cars were racing along them. The pyramids were built like the Egyptian ones, but according to local religious views. Irrigation canals made it possible to feed the people with their own agricultural products.

The Incas created calendars, chronology and writing, had an observatory and were well oriented by the stars. And suddenly, overnight, all civilizations disappeared. Many scientists are working to unravel the causes of a rather strange, even from the standpoint of modern science, socio-demographic phenomenon. First, let's introduce the Inca civilization in a brief description.

Ancient Incas

If we consider geographical map South American continent, its vertical division by the Andes mountains will be striking. To the east of the mountains extends Pacific Ocean. This area, closer to the north, was chosen by the ancient Indian tribe of the Incas, pronounced “Quechua” in their language, in the 11th – 15th centuries. In such a short period, on a certain scale, it is difficult to create a unique and one of the early class civilizations of Mesoamerica. The Incas succeeded at this, perhaps with some outside help.

It stretched for five thousand kilometers from north to south - this is exactly half the length of the Russian Federation. It included the territories, in whole or in part, of eight modern Latin American countries. These regions were inhabited by about twenty million people.

Archaeologists say: Quechua culture did not begin out of nowhere. It has been proven that a significant part either came to the Quechua from outside, or they settled on foreign territory and appropriated the achievements of previous civilizations.

The Incas were good warriors and did not hesitate to conquer new territories. From the Mochica culture and the Kari state they could adopt the technology of making colored ceramics, laying canals in the fields, and from Nazca - the construction of underground water pipelines. The list goes on.

What the Quechuas themselves excelled at was stone-cutting. The blocks for the buildings were cut so beautifully that no binding material was required when laying them. The pinnacle of architecture is a group of temples under the general name of the Golden Court with the temple of the Sun God. The supreme rulers of the Quechuas simply adored gold; the emperor’s palaces were covered with it from floor to ceiling. The Spanish conquistadors melted down all this luxury and transported it home in ingots. Only the majestic pyramids on the lifeless land remind of past greatness.

Ancient Maya

The Mayans had everything that characterized ancient civilizations, except the wheel and metal tools. Tools were made of high quality from strong stone, even for cutting wood.

The Mayans skillfully erected buildings using arched ceilings, rare for those times, and knowledge of geometry helped to correctly lay irrigation canals. They were the first to know how to get cement. Their surgeons performed operations with scalpels made of frozen glass.

Like the Incas (Quechua), the Mayans had great knowledge about space and the stars. But hardly any of them could own spacecraft. But then why did they need a domed observatory tower that has survived to this day? The building is positioned in such a way that it is better to navigate the orbit of the brightest planet. Just to create a calendar aimed at this planet? Obviously there were other plans. It’s not for nothing that there are mysterious images of flying people on the rocks.

There is also this version of the origin of the Mayans: perhaps they sailed to America on ships from another continent. Like the Incas, the Mayans used the experience of a more developed civilization - the Olmecs, who appeared from nowhere on the American continent. For example, their experience of making drinks from a substance similar to chocolate, and in religion they adopted deities in the form of animals.

The Mayans disappeared in the 10th century AD. The Incas, Mayans, and Olmecs suffered the same fate - their civilizations ceased to exist in their prime. There are two popular versions of the death of the Mayans: ecology and conquest. The second is supported by artifacts from the presence of other tribes in the territory where the Mayans lived.

Ancient Aztecs

Up to a dozen tribes lived on the fertile lands of the Valley of Mexico for centuries. At the beginning of the 14th century, the Tepanec tribe appeared there. Warlike, incredibly cruel, it conquered all other tribes. Their allies in the seizure of territories were a small tribe of tenochki.

These were the Aztecs. Neighboring tribes called them by this name. The Aztecs are driven out by other tribes to a deserted island. And from here the power of the Aztecs spread over the entire valley of Mexico, where up to ten million people already lived. They traded with everyone who accepted them. Thousands of people lived in cities. The state has grown to unprecedented proportions.

M. Stingle. Secrets of Indian pyramids., M.: “Progress”, 1982.

M. Stingle. Worshipers of the stars. In the footsteps of the disappeared Peruvian states, M.: “Progress”, 1983.

M. Stingle. Inca State. Glory and death of the “sons of the Sun”, M.: “Progress”, 1986.

One of the characteristic features of the art of pre-Columbian America is the existence of a huge number of different cultures, each of which had a special, unique style. There were about 11 thousand of them in Mexico alone.

Among these crops, three of the most significant stand out:

Aztec culture (Central Mexico);

Mayan culture (Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras);

Inca culture (Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador).

Aztec culture.

The culture developed over almost four centuries, starting from the 12th century. Until 1521, when the Spanish conquistadors (conquerors) destroyed the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan (ancient Mexico City). Cartes, the leader of the conquistadors, fell in love with Marina (a name that came to Europe from the Aztecs), the daughter of the last Aztec leader Mantesula. Only by chance did Cartes manage to defeat the Aztecs. Wounded, he snatched the spear from the leader, and the Aztec troops began to obey him.

Most of the stone buildings of the Aztecs have reached us severely damaged. These are primarily tetrahedral pyramids on which temples or palaces were located. The Aztecs believed that every half century a new period in the development of the world, and in accordance with this, temples and palaces were updated. The previously built temple, together with the pyramid, was covered with several layers of masonry, so that it ended up inside the updated pyramid, on top of which another temple was built. In one of the pyramids in Tenayuca, 8 successively walled temples were discovered. Sometimes the palaces and temples on the peaks were built of wood, but they have not survived.

Aztec sculpture is distinguished by its severity and schematism. They created huge cult statues, sometimes vaguely resembling a person and composed of symbolic images: corn cobs, fangs, etc. For example, the statue of the goddess of Earth and Fertility Coatlicue.

Few examples of painting have survived. Bright decorative “mosaics” made of feathers glued to thick fabric, and works of the finest jewelry art have come down to us.

On the territory of Mexico, the bloodiest cult in the history of mankind, associated with the planet Venus, appeared. A wall of skulls coated with clay was found here.

Uxmal is a complex of ancient American culture. The Palace of the Rulers in Uxmal is located on an artificial platform 200170 m, 12 m high. The palace itself has the following dimensions: 98128.5 m. The upper part of the Supreme Palace is decorated with a huge relief. The main character of the relief is the god of Rain and Fertility Chak. Chuck is the intermediary deity between God and man; he is a guardian dwarf.

There was a cult of the Feathered Serpent among the Teotihuacans, Toltecs, and then among the Aztecs. People worshiped him as the giver of civilization.

Mayan culture.

A vibrant culture was created by the Mayan peoples. Already in the II-III centuries. AD The Mayan tribes founded small city-states headed by priests and aristocracy.

Like the Aztecs, the Mayans built their buildings on stone foundations. Two types of structures are more common: temples on top of the pyramids; extensive palaces on high stone pillars (bases) that were formed around an open courtyard. Mayan houses were usually built on the ledges of a natural or artificial hill, making their buildings appear multi-story. Mayan architecture is more picturesque and richly decorated than that of the Aztecs. The facades of the buildings were decorated with geometric patterns, reliefs and masks of deities. Sometimes the wall mass is completely hidden under stone lace. Columns are often used. Famous monuments of this culture: the Temple of the Sun in Palenque, the Temple of the Jaguars and the Temple of the Warriors in Chichen Itza. There are four staircases of 91 steps (914=364) leading to the top of the Kukulkan pyramid in Chichen Itza. At the top of the sanctuary of Kukulcan-Quetzalcoatl there is another 365th step. The pyramid is decorated with 52 reliefs. The Toltecs introduced the Venus calendar and the highest calendar cycle into the Mayac culture - 52 years (365 days each)

Sculpture has reached a high level of development. In accordance with the very complex Mayan calendar, stone steles with reliefs were erected every 20 years. On the front side of the stele a figure of a deity or ruler was depicted. The remaining three sides were covered with hierographic inscriptions.

The Mayan culture reached its peak in the 8th-9th centuries. AD At this time, complex reliefs with multi-figure compositions appeared (Piedras Negras stela, 795). The Mayans had palaces, temples, monasteries, observatories, courtyards, markets, ceremonial sites, and steam bath buildings. They created underground stone reservoirs - Chultuns. Reservoirs were carved into rocks, connected by canals and served to store rainwater. The Mayans built roads - sakbe (surface - lime concrete compacted with a stone roller), but did not know wheels.

The Mayans have no central government, no capital, all cities are equal.

The best examples of Mayan painting are the frescoes of the temple in Bonampak (opened in 1946). Three rooms of the temple are covered with paintings depicting the preparation for the battle, the battle and the celebration after the battle. The masters used clean, bright colors. Color was associated with certain symbolism. The ancient inhabitants of Mexico, noticing a red figure in the composition, knew that we were talking about the god of the Earth Xipetoteki, thereby about the eastern sky with its meanings of sunrise, youth and spring.

Above the priests performing the ritual of sacrifice, the priest-prophets and the priests-servants of the Sun stood the high priest of the Mayak state. He was also a Master of Hierographic Writing, Chief Astrologer and Astronomer.

Inca culture.

The Inca Empire existed for a relatively short time from the beginning of the 15th century. until 1532, when the country was captured by the Spanish conquerors. The Incan writing system has not been fully deciphered. The capital was the city of Cusco, famous for its Golden Garden (perhaps the craftsmen who created it were from the Chimu people).

The architecture is simple and unadorned. Temples, dwellings, fortresses are made of huge stone blocks(up to 350 tons in weight) very precisely fitted to each other, but not held together with binding solutions (Sacsahuaman fortress). The houses had strong stone walls and cramped interior spaces. Most houses have no windows and are lit through doors. According to travelers' descriptions, the buildings were originally decorated with wide belts of thick gold plates. The use of precious metals not as money, but as a decorative material was characteristic of the Incas. For example, in the Temple of the Sun in the city of Cusco, several rooms are decorated with images of the Sun, Moon, rainbow and stars made of gold, silver and precious stones. Unlike Central America, the Incas built pyramids up to 40m high. not for temples, but for burials. Trapezoidal entrances and niches are characteristic features of Inca architecture.

Stone sculpture received almost no development among the Incas.

The art of making and painting ceramics has been developed. It is conventionally divided into several periods. In the first period, the vessels depict scenes of battle, fishing, and mythological subjects. In the second period, the paintings practically disappear, but the vessels themselves turn into real sculpture. Most often, the vessels were made in the shape of a human head, sometimes conveying individual features. Later, vessels appear in the form of animals, fruits and plants.

The main food of the Incas was potatoes (including canned ones), corn, and pumpkins. The Incas grew coca, a narcotic plant. In the empire there was a clear division of the population into the elite and the bulk of the inhabitants. According to the law, the Inca (ruler of the empire) married his sister, who became his legal wife and, as a rule, the mother of the heir. In addition to his main wife, he had a harem and could live with any of the nuns of the monasteries, since he was the incarnation of the Sun God on Earth. The heir was appointed during the life of the ruler by the ritual of public hair cutting. The future heir helped his father and learned management. There were 10 age groups of the population, each of which had certain rights and responsibilities. Group 1: infants. Group 2: children under 2 years old. Group 3: children playing. Group 4: children 9-12 years old. Group 5: teenagers 12-18 years old. Group 6: 18-25 years old - serving in the army. Group 7: 25-50 years old – married and running a household. Group 8: 50-80 years old – old people. Group 9: 80 years and older - deaf old people. Group 10: patients.

There were no uprisings in the state. This social system provided security for old age. It is therefore sometimes called “Indian socialism.” There was no money in the empire, only natural exchange on the market. Gold is used as decoration. The army is well trained and equipped (clubs with stone or metal ends). There were excellent roads and a post office. The messengers ran from parking lot to parking lot for about two kilometers; as a result of the relay race, 2000 km were covered in 3 days. The Incas composed poems that were later written down by the Jesuits. The knotted quipu script is widespread, in which one can count up to 1,000,000. The nobility studied at universities for 4 years, where they studied the Quechua language, solar religion, knotted quipu script, history and military affairs. The Incas wove dense fabrics with a density of 8045 threads/cm (modern parachute fabric has a density of 6030 threads/cm). They performed operations, including craniotomy.

The last Inca was called Tupacu Omaru.

Additional information.

The oldest cultures of Peru date back to the 3rd millennium BC.

Close to Lima There was a culture at that time whose representatives did not know about the existence of metals, but erected clay and stone temples on artificial platforms. The Temple of the Crossed Hands is famous. Later, this gesture-sign is found in Colombia.

Culture Chavin, associated with the cult of the Jaguar, was widespread at the end of the 2nd - middle of the 1st millennium. BC.

Culture Nazca(mid-2nd century BC) correlates with the valleys of the Ica, Pisco and Nazca rivers. Here the “wooden Stonehenge of Peru” was found – the Escuquería sanctuary. It consists of hundreds of dried mesquite tree trunks. The center of the composition is a square formed by 12 rows of 12 columns each. Giant images found in the Nazca Desert. The Pampa de Nazca Gallery is platforms, lines, spirals, human and animal “figuras” (geoglyphs). The head of a giant bird (120m long) is directed towards the point of sunrise on the winter solstice. According to M. Stingle, the Indians buried the deceased using a triangular-shaped balloon. At sunset, the deceased was placed in a wicker basket, the balloon rose above the sea and disappeared beyond the horizon.

Culture Mochika(I-VII centuries BC) left behind the pyramids of the Sun and Moon. In Pampa Grande. The Pyramid of the Sun has a base of 342159 m. Gold products are unique. We have reached the legend of the existence of a golden garden and eyewitness accounts of a room with five thousand golden butterflies, each of which weighed less than a gram and hovered in the air with slight fluctuations in the air. The butterflies were melted by the conquerors. As a result, they received 4 kg 700 g of pure gold. Around Lake Titicaca, many chulpas were found - funerary towers of rectangular and cylindrical shape, extended upward.

According to legend, the founder of the Chimu culture sailed to Peru from the north with his detachment on rafts. His name was Naimlan. "Hire" means "bird" or "flight". Chimu built the city of Chan-Chan with an area of ​​18 square meters. km. The city is surrounded by two rows of defensive walls and divided into 10 quarters 450300 m. In many respects, the customs that reigned in the Chimu state differed little from the customs of the 25th century. Inc. In the 1460s. Two cultures collided - the coastal Chimu culture, which worshiped the Moon, and the mountainous Inca culture, which worshiped the Sun. The victory remained for the second. Clay reliefs depicting birds, fish, lizards, foxes, and ornaments have been preserved from the Chimu culture. Since ancient times, the supreme deity in Peru has been depicted framed by a snake arch, surrounded by predators. The arch symbolized the rainbow, the Milky Way, thunder, and the sky.

Culture Olmec- one of the cultures of ancient Mexico. San Lorenzo, the capital of the Olmecs, was abandoned for unknown reasons in 900. The second capital of the “jaguar” Indians was La Venta. Huge stone heads have been found at La Venta.

Tribes Chol and Tzeltal They left in Palenque (Mexico) a famous ensemble in which the palace tower, a 4-story building, was also an observatory.

The Toltec culture is interesting. The Pyramid of the Morning Star in Tula (Tollan) has been preserved.

 

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