The largest architect of the mid-18th century. School encyclopedia. Spassky Old Fair Cathedral in Nizhny Novgorod

Russian architecture of the 18th century associated primarily with three architectural directions. This is primarily Baroque, Rococo and Classicism.

Baroque is a movement in art, the main features of which are pomp, contrast, and the combination of reality and illusion. Masters of work in the Baroque style left a big mark on Russian architecture of the 18th century. The surnames of Trezzini, Schlüter, Michetti, Zemtsov, Rastrelli, Chevansky and Ukhtomsky remained forever in history of Russian architecture.

It is worth noting that the ensembles of the Winter Palace, the Stroganov Palace, the Smolny Monastery, Tsarskoe Selo and the design of Peterhof are masterpieces of the Baroque style.

Rococo is an architectural style that arose by combining Baroque and Classicism. This style carries sophistication and gallantry and is characteristic mainly for interior design.

In the 18th century, in Russian architecture, a new phenomenon is emerging - “Russian classicism”. Russian classicism is a direction of architecture characterized by simplicity and rigor, as well as rationality. A large number of buildings in the style of Russian classicism were located in Moscow. Pashkov's house, Bazhev's Tsaritsyn complex, Senate buildings, the house of Prince Golitsyn and many other buildings. Today these buildings are monuments Russian architecture of the 18th century.

The epicenter of advanced trends in architecture and urban planning, the Russian capital St. Petersburg became the same age as the century, conceived as a model new culture. The future capital was built from scratch, which greatly facilitated the introduction of regular planning and development techniques. The experience of foreign specialists was used on an unprecedented scale, and the material and human resources of the entire country were mobilized. In the first years of the existence of St. Petersburg, widespread construction of mud huts began. During construction, craftsmen mastered wooden structures of the so-called “Prussian model”, i.e. lightweight walls, flat floors in commercial, public and residential buildings. The technical novelty of St. Petersburg was the unusually high spiers crowning the most important city buildings, which was widespread in the northern European countries Oh. An outstanding structure of this type was the spire of the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the height of which reached 45 m. With the scale of stone construction, its engineering foundations were also improved, and it became possible to reduce the thickness of the walls of buildings under construction without significantly reducing the strength of the buildings. For example, in the palace of A. Menshikov on Vasilyevsky Island The thickness of the wall in the upper floors is only one and a half or even one brick. During this period, the production of both ordinary bricks and special, moisture-resistant bricks, according to the Dutch recipe, was established in St. Petersburg. All this did not take long to produce results. The city was created in record time; temporary wooden Petersburg was quickly replaced by stone one. By the end of the reign of Peter I, it was already surprising visiting foreigners with its grandeur and beauty. In a work about St. Petersburg written in 1751, the author had reason to write: “this city is so widespread, embellished and exalted that it has a notable advantage over many great and ancient cities in Europe.” In St. Petersburg, for the first time, a regular city development plan was developed and became its city-forming basis. The plan of P. M. Eropkin (1737) and the projects that followed it consolidated this pattern of city development. St. Petersburg squares have also acquired a qualitatively new face. They received geographical outlines with the construction of their extended facades of guest houses, colleges and other public buildings. This is what Trinity Square looked like on the Petrograd side. In the middle of the century, the intensifying stylistic tendency towards sculptural expression of forms affected the silhouette of St. Petersburg, which was enriched with many new, highly raised bell towers and churches. Moreover, in their form, instead of spiers, emphatically national motifs of five domes, tiers, and towers appeared, which is why the silhouette of the city received new volumetric and plastic accents and a picturesque character that was previously unusual for it. The “regular” Russian capital of St. Petersburg becomes a symbolic embodiment of the image of the absolutist empire itself with its idea of ​​universal order. The area where experience in regular regulated construction was also gained was the “fortress cities” and “factory cities” founded in the first half of the century. Of particular importance was the experience of construction of Taganrog, Voronezh, Azov, redevelopment of such cities as Orenburg, Tver and many others.
Great Russian and foreign architects played an invaluable role in this. One of the most famous representatives of the Western architectural school who worked in Russia was Rastrelli Francesco Bartolomeo (1700-1771), the son of the Italian sculptor K. F. Rastrelli, who served at the court of the French king Louis XIV, but gained architectural and construction experience in Russia. Being a gifted artist, he managed to prove himself as a skilled architect and took the highest position in the architectural world of Russia as “chief architect”. His work reached its apogee in 1740-1750. His most famous creations are the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg (1748-1764), created in the traditions of Russian monastic ensembles of previous centuries, and the palaces of the Elizabethan nobles M. I. Vorontsov and S. . G. Stroganov in St. Petersburg, but his talent was manifested to the highest degree in the creation of such masterpieces as Winter Palace(1754-1762) in the capital, Grand Palace in Tsarskoe Selo and Peterhof (Petrodvorets), and in many, many other things. All of them clearly characterize the Baroque style of the mid-18th century. and the evolution of the work of a remarkable architect. Another prominent foreign representative who worked in Russia was Antonio Rinaldi (1710-1794). In his early buildings, he was still under the influence of the “aging and passing” Baroque, however, it can be fully said that Rinadi is a representative of early classicism. His creations include the Chinese Palace (1762-1768), built for Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna in Oranienbaum, the Marble Palace in St. Petersburg (1768-1785), attributed to unique phenomenon in Russian architecture, the Palace in Gatchina (1766-1781), which became the country residence of Count G. G. Orlov. A. Rinaldi also built several Orthodox churches that combined Baroque elements - five-domed domes and a high multi-tiered bell tower. A famous Russian representative of the era of early classicism in architecture was a student of the architect Korobov - Kokorinov. F. (1726-1722). Among his famous works, where the style of classicism was most clearly manifested, it is customary to include the building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg, built on the Nevskaya embankment of Vasilyevsky Island (1764-1788). The unusually beautiful facade and multifunctional offices and halls of this building corresponded to the ever-increasing prestige of Russian art. V. Bazhenov is rightfully considered a famous Moscow architect who decorated the appearance of Moscow. I. (1737-1799). He received his initial knowledge of architecture at the architectural school of D. V. Ukhtomsky and at the gymnasium of Moscow University. A diplomat of the French Academy of Arts, being awarded the title of professor at the Rome National Academy of Arts, membership in the Florence and Bologna Academies of Arts is truly global recognition of his talent. Upon returning to St. Petersburg (1765), V. I. Bazhenov was elected academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, and in 1799. he became its vice president. The first works of V.I. Bazhenov include the construction of the building of the St. Petersburg Arsenal (now does not exist) and the still unsolved project of the Smolny Institute (not implemented). Since 1767 All the attention of the widely educated architect was absorbed by a responsible assignment - the design and construction of a colossal structure - the Grand Kremlin Palace and the college building on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin. In this regard, in 1768, a special Expedition of the Kremlin building was created, the chief architect of which was V.I. Bazhenov. His architectural team included the most famous designers of that time, one of whom was the greatest later architect - M. F. Kazakov. The new palace was conceived to be so grandiose (corresponding to the prestige of a great state) that it could hide behind itself the ancient buildings of Cathedral Square, and this would violate the traditional appearance of the Kremlin, which is why, with his “Instructions for Construction...” Bazhenov himself proclaimed the need to preserve the ancient buildings of the Kremlin . In 1772, all design work was completed, and on June 1, 1773, the official foundation stone of the palace was carried out. V.I. Bazhenov wrote: “the peoples of Europe, having seen the new Kremlin rising from the bowels of the earth, will be amazed at its majesty and enormity and will no longer see the beauty of their own splendors.” However, the construction of the palace did not go beyond the ceremonial laying, and in 1775 the architectural team of V. I. Bazhenov was even dissolved. The widely publicized project and construction of the palace was a means of strengthening the state prestige of Catherine II, who sought to show that Russia under her rule was capable of waging a grueling war and at the same time undertaking grandiose construction. And, nevertheless, despite the fact that V.I. Bazhenov’s outstanding plan was not realized, its significance for Russian culture was very great, and, above all, for the final establishment of classicism as the main stylistic direction in the development of Russian architecture. In addition, many famous craftsmen received professional training on the Kremlin reconstruction project. V. I. Bazhenov endured the refusal of construction stoically; failures did not break the architect. He began developing projects for private buildings commissioned by the Moscow nobility. The most significant buildings of this period include the ensemble of the estate and manor house of Pashkov in Moscow (1784-1786), not far from the Kremlin. This determined a compact and highly original planning composition. When designing Pashkov's house, Bazhenov acted as a brilliant follower of the ideas of French classicism. Of the city estate houses in Moscow created in the last period of Bazhenov’s life, the Yushkov house on Myasnitskaya should be noted. The completion of V. I. Bazhenov’s work is the project for the construction of the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg, but Bazhenov failed to complete it, and the palace was completed with significant changes by the architect V. F. Brenn.
Another outstanding Russian architect is KazakovM. F. He received his education at the architectural school of D. V. Ukhtomsky in Moscow, a large role in the development of M. F. Kazakov’s natural talent was played by work in Tver, and then a seven-year stay in the architectural team of V. I. Bazhenov while working on the project Grand Kremlin Palace. The creative credo of the mature Kazakov was classicism in its strict manifestation. A striking example of this is the huge Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin, skillfully constructed by him in 1776 - 1787. It can be assumed that the nature of the architectural design of this building was inspired by the architecture of the unrealized Kremlin Palace of V. I. Bazhenov. The next large public building erected by Kazakov in Moscow was the four-story University building on Mokhovaya Street (1786 - 1793). This building is an excellent example of classicism, corresponding to the prestige of Russian science, having a strict and representative appearance. An important place in the architecture of Moscow classicism and in the work of M. F. Kazakov is occupied by a famous public building - the House of the Noble Assembly, masterfully rebuilt by the architect. Kazakov also built the Church of Metropolitan Philip on Second Meshchanskaya Street (1777-1788). In construction, the master also used the classic round composition in relation to the Orthodox church.

Compared to architecture, the development of Russian sculpture in the 18th century was more uneven. The achievements that marked the second half of the 18th century were immeasurably more significant and diverse. The relatively weak development of Russian plastic arts in the first half of the century is due primarily to the fact that here, unlike architecture, there were no such significant traditions and schools. The development of ancient Russian sculpture, limited by the prohibitions of the Orthodox Christian Church, had an effect. Achievements of Russian plastic arts of the early 18th century. almost entirely associated with decorative sculpture. First of all, the unusually rich sculptural decoration of the Dubrovitsky Church (1690-1704), the Menshikov Tower in Moscow (1705-1707) and the reliefs on the walls of the Summer Palace of Peter I in St. Petersburg (1714) should be noted. Executed in 1722-1726. The famous iconostasis of the Peter and Paul Cathedral, created according to the design of the architect I. P. Zarudny by carvers I. Telegin and T. Ivanov, can be considered, in essence, as the result of the development of this type of art. The huge carved iconostasis of the Peter and Paul Cathedral amazes with its solemn splendor, virtuosity of woodworking, and the richness and variety of decorative motifs. Throughout the 18th century. Folk wooden sculpture continued to develop successfully, especially in the north of Russia. Despite the prohibitions of the synod, works of religious sculpture continued to be created for Russian churches in the north; numerous wood and stone carvers heading to construction major cities ; foreign sculptors were invited. It is no coincidence that the second half of the 18th century. and the first third of the 19th century. called the “golden age” of Russian sculpture. A brilliant galaxy of masters in the person of Shubin, Kozlovsky, Martos and others are moving forward into the ranks of the largest representatives of world sculpture. Particularly outstanding successes were achieved in the field of sculptural portraits, monumental and monumental-decorative plastic arts. The latter was inextricably linked with the rise of Russian architecture, estate and urban construction. In the second half of the 18th century, the steady flourishing of domestic plastic arts began. Round sculpture had previously developed slowly, with difficulty overcoming eight hundred years of ancient Russian traditions in relation to the pagan “boob.” It did not produce a single great Russian master in the first half of the 18th century, but the more brilliant was its rise in the next period. Russian classicism, as the leading artistic movement of this time, was the greatest stimulus for the development of the art of great civil ideas, which determined the interest in sculpture during this period. F.I. Shubin, F.G. Gordeev, M.I. Kozlovsky, F.F. Shchedrin, I.P. Prokofiev, I.P. Martos - each in himself was a bright individual, left his own, unique mark in art. But they were all united by common creative principles, which they learned back at the Academy in the sculpture class of Professor Nicolas Gillet. Russian artists were also united by common ideas of citizenship and patriotism, and the high ideals of antiquity. Interest in “heroic antiquity” also influences the choice of gods and heroes: Neptunes and Bacchus, beloved in Peter’s time, are replaced by Prometheus, Polycrates, Marsyas, Hercules, Alexander the Great, heroes of the Homeric epic. Russian sculptors strive to embody in a male image the traits of a heroic personality, and in the feminine - an ideally beautiful, harmoniously clear, perfect beginning. This can be seen both in monumental, architectural and decorative, and in easel plastic. Unlike the Baroque, architectural and decorative plastic in the era of classicism has a strict arrangement system on the facade of the building: mainly in the central part, the main portico and in the side projections, or crowns the building, readable against the sky. Speaking in general about sculpture of the second half of the 18th century, one should recognize one very important thing in common, to one degree or another characteristic of all Russian sculpture of this time, regardless of its relationship to architecture or its genre: it always represents a combination, a fusion of features of Baroque and classicism, baroque and classical trends, especially at the dawn of the birth of classicism. Together, Russian classicism differed from the pan-European one in its attitude towards antiquity. For Russian masters, antiquity has never been the most important and almost the only object of study and imitation. In Russian classicism there is also no unconditional and strict priority of reason over feeling; the emotionality of the image always recalls a living connection with the Baroque. In addition, the basis of all classicist works of Russian masters is a careful study of nature, just as it was the basis of the works of the sculptor Rastrelli, who with all his creativity, as it were, prepared the flowering of Russian plastic arts in the second half of the 18th century. The achievements of the portrait genre in sculpture are associated primarily with the work of Fedot Ivanovich Shubin (1740-1805), a fellow countryman of Lomonosov, who arrived in St. Petersburg, in essence, already an artist who had mastered the intricacies of bone carving. Shubin's first work upon returning to his homeland - a bust of former vice-chancellor A.M. Golitsyn - already testifies to the full maturity of the master. Such a characteristic image helps the sculptor create an extraordinary variety of expressive means that he owns. After the success of Golitsyn’s bust, the Empress ordered “not to assign him anywhere, but to actually be with Her Majesty.” In 1774, Shubin was awarded the title of academician. The sculptor rarely turned to bronze; he worked mainly in marble and always used, in essence, a very closed and limited bust shape. Using the language of plastic arts, he creates images of extraordinary expressiveness and exceptional energy, without at all striving for their external glorification. Shubin worked not only as an orthretist, but also as a decorator. He executed 58 oval marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace (located in the Armory Chamber), sculptures for the Marble Palace and for Peterhof. In 1775-1785 Shubin was busy with work for the Marble Palace. These are 42 sculptural works that he performed together with the Italian Valli and the Austrian sculptor Duncker. In the 70s, a number of young Academy graduates worked next to Shubin. A year later, Shubina graduated from it and was retired in Paris and Italy by Fyodor Gordeevich Gordeev (1744-1810). N returned to St. Petersburg in 1772, in 1776. received the title of academician. Gordeev’s creative path was closely connected with the Academy; he taught there all his life and even served as its rector for some time. Gordeev is a master of monumental and decorative sculpture. Russian masters knew how to deeply imbue themselves with the ideals of antiquity, specifically Greek antiquity. Just as in the medieval period the traditions of Byzantine art were creatively adopted by ancient Russian masters, so during the period of classicism in the second half of the 18th century, Russian sculptors comprehended and creatively rethought the principles of Hellenistic sculpture. Thus, Gordeev’s first work “Prometheus” and two tombstones of the Golitsyns carry many baroque features: the complexity of the silhouette, expression and dynamics, the picturesqueness of the overall compositional concept, the pathetic gestures of allegorical figures. The principles of classicism in Gordeev’s work can be traced even more clearly in the bas-reliefs on ancient subjects for the facades and interiors of the Ostankino Palace. Gordeev took part in the creation of the main monuments of St. Petersburg: he owns the snake of the Bronze Horseman and the relief on the Voronikhin pedestal of the monument to Suvorov Kozlovsky: banners, geniuses and a shield with the inscription “Prince of Italy Count Suvorov-Rymniksky 1801”. Gordeev's latest works are four bas-reliefs on the northern portico of the Kazan Cathedral. In the work of the remarkable Russian sculptor of rare talent Mikhail Ivanovich Kozlovsky (1753-1802).

Russian Theater of the 18th century

At the beginning of the 18th century, in Moscow, a public theater opened for the first time on Red Square. A foreign troupe of actors played in the theater. The actors staged plays by the Frenchman Moliere, the first Russian dramatic works and tragedies of ancient life.

In the 40s of the 18th century, the first troupe of Russian actors appeared in Yaroslavl, headed by Fyodor Volkov. In 1752, the troupe was invited to play in St. Petersburg, and four years later the troupe became the vanguard of Russian theater of the 18th century. Russian theater in St. Petersburg was located on Vasilyevsky Island, in Golovin’s house. The director of the theater was Sumarokov. Fonvizin's plays were staged for the first time on the stage of the St. Petersburg Theater.

In the 70s 18th century, V Russian theater a new phenomenon appears. An amateur actor, a student at Moscow University, he creates the Locatelli comic opera theater. The theater did not last long.

In its prime Russian theater of the 18th century, became the second half of the century. The creation of the “Theater Directory” and state financial support led to the fact that Russian theater became more accessible to the population, and performances became more colorful. On the theatrical stages of the Russian theater of the 18th century, comic opera and drama began to dominate.

IN Russian theater of the 18th century, such a phenomenon as serf theaters was popular. Count Theaters Sheremetev in Ostankino, Prince Yusupov in Arkhangelskoye, which were famous for the inspired performances of serf actors. Often serf actors had great talent, but they were not free. Such life's vicissitudes often ended in tragedy.

In the first half of the 18th century, such famous buildings as the Menshikov Tower, as well as the subsequently destroyed Red Gate, were built in Moscow.

The most significant achievements in Moscow architecture of the second half of the 18th century are associated with the works of such architects as Vasily Bazhenov and Matvey Kazakov. Both of them are known primarily for the architectural complex at Tsaritsyno and Petrovsky Castle. Bazhenov built the famous Pashkov house. The Noble Assembly, the Palace of the Governor General, the Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin, the Eliseev House and many other Moscow buildings were built according to Kazakov’s designs.

Matvey Fedorovich Kazakov (1738 -1812) - Russian architect, who during the reign Catherine II rebuilt the center Moscow V Palladian style . One of the largest representatives Russian pseudo-Gothic. Developer of standard development projects.

1 Biography

2 Works

3 Notes

Biography

Matvey Kazakov was born in 1738 in Moscow, in the family of the sub-office clerk of the Main Commissariat Fyodor Kazakov, who came from serfdom. The Kazakov family lived near Kremlin, near Borovitsky Bridge. In 1749 or early 1750, Kazakov’s father died. Mother, Fedosya Semyonovna, decided to send her son to the architectural school of the famous architect D. V. Ukhtomsky ; in March 1751, Kazakov became a student at Ukhtomsky’s school and stayed there until 1760. From 1768 he worked under the direction V. I. Bazhenova V Expeditions of the Kremlin building; in particular, in 1768-1773. he participated in the creation of the Grand Kremlin Palace, and in 1775 - in the design of festive entertainment pavilions on Khodynka field. IN 1775 Kazakov was confirmed in the rank of architect.

Kazakov’s legacy includes many graphic works - architectural drawings, engravings and drawings, including “Pleasure buildings on Khodynskoye Field in Moscow” (ink and pen, 1774-1775; GNIMA), “Construction of the Peter’s Palace” (ink and pen, 1778; GNIMA).

Kazakov also proved himself as a teacher, organizing an architectural school during the Kremlin Building Expedition; his students were such architects as I. V. Egotov, A. N. Bakarev, O. I. Bove and I.G. Tamansky. IN 1805 the school was transformed into the School of Architecture.

During Patriotic War of 1812 relatives took Matvey Fedorovich from Moscow to Ryazan. There the architect learned about fire in Moscow- this news accelerated the death of the master. Kazakov died October 26 (November 7) 1812 in Ryazan and was buried in a cemetery (now not preserved) Ryazan Trinity Monastery .

The former Gorokhovskaya street in Moscow. His ex is also named after him. Dvoryanskaya street V Kolomna. In 1959 in Kerch, on the initiative of the chief architect of the city A.N. Morozova, the newly formed street began to bear the name of Kazakov in honor of his 225th anniversary.

Works

Many monuments of Cossack Moscow were badly damaged during fire of 1812 and were restored with deviations from the original plan of the architect. Kazakov’s authorship of many Palladian buildings, especially those built according to standard designs outside of Moscow, is speculative and extremely controversial (despite statements contained in local history publications).

Monument Vasily Bazhenov And Matvey Kazakov(in the foreground) in Tsaritsyn work Leonid Baranov

Prechistensky Palace V Moscow (1774-1776);

Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin (1776-1787);

University buildings on Mokhovaya(1786-1793, rebuilt after the fire of 1812 Domenico Gilardi);

Novo-Ekaterininskaya Hospital (1774-76);

Noble Assembly (1775);

House of Archbishop Plato, later Small Nikolaevsky Palace (1775);

Petrovskoye-Alabino, house-estate of the Meshcherskys (1776);

Church of Philip Metropolitan (1777-1788);

Travel Palace (Tver);

Kozitsky House on Tverskaya (1780-1788);

Temple of the Ascension on the Pea Field (1790-1793);

Church of Cosmas and Damian on Maroseyka (1791-1803);

Demidov's estate house V Gorokhovsky Lane (1789-1791) ;

Gubin's house-estate Petrovka(1790s);

Golitsyn Hospital (1796-1801);

Pavlovsk hospital (1802-1807);

Baryshnikov's estate house (1797-1802);

General plan of Kolomna 1778;

Church of the Savior in the village Raisemenovskoe, completed in 1774-1783

Petrovsky entrance palace (1776-1780);

Governor General's House (1782);

Attributed

Tikhvin Church, bishop's house, towers Staro-Golutvina Monastery(1780s)

Mausoleum in Nikolo-Pogorelom(Smolensk region, 1784-1802).

House Musina-Pushkin on Razgulyae

22. Urban development of St. Petersburg in the 1760s - 1790s. Bridges and embankments.

The second half of the 18th century brought a lot of new things to Russian architecture. The growth of industry, trade, the expansion of cities, as well as major successes in Russian science led to changes in construction. Advanced architects of this time developed issues related to city planning and created new types of public buildings. The changes in the appearance of the buildings were radical. The forms used in the mid-18th century for free-standing unique palace and church buildings naturally turned out to be unsuitable for construction on a larger scale. The new content also determined the forms that corresponded to it. The architects turned to the heritage of ancient, primarily Roman, classics. From the latter they took orders, which were reproduced extremely accurately, observing the correct relationships and details. Orders became the main means of tectonic and plastic solutions for facades and interiors. Another requirement for architectural structures of this time is the harmony of proportions, both in relation to the overall volumes and individual elements of buildings. Architectural techniques developed on the basis of a creative appeal to antiquity later received the name of Russian classicism.

From the beginning of the 1760s, large-scale urban planning work began - in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and a number of other Russian cities. Of great importance in the construction of St. Petersburg were the works on regulating the banks of the Neva and small rivers, laying new canals, building granite embankments, and constructing the first stone bridges. “The Neva was dressed in granite, the bridges hung over the waters,” A. S. Pushkin would later aptly and accurately characterize these works. At the same time, the development of a system of large squares was underway on the territory of the city center that had finally been determined by this time near the Admiralty. Squares were created near the Fontanka; its banks were connected by seven monumental drawbridges. In Moscow, on the site of the old fortress walls White City, a ring of wide, beautiful boulevards arose, defining the appearance of many streets. Significant construction work has been carried out in a number of other cities. Thus, in Tver (now the city of Kalinin), after the fire of 1763, the entire city center was reconstructed on a new basis. Considerable construction took place in Yaroslavl.

At the same time, separate large structures for new purposes were also built. On the banks of the Neva A. F. Kokorinov(1726-1772), who studied with Korobov, Ukhtomsky, and J.-B. Ballen-Delamotme(1729-1800) the huge building of the Academy of Arts was erected (1764-1788, ill. 33). Near the Smolny Monastery, which during these years was turned into a closed privileged educational institution, Yu. M. Felten built a new large building specifically for educational purposes. A vast building of the Orphanage was erected in Moscow. IN general schemes Their solutions still differ greatly from previous palace buildings, but at the same time, the architects boldly developed new techniques and created convenient, rational plans. The appearance of these buildings is also designed differently - in strict and simple forms.

Il. 33. A. F. Kokorinov, J.-B. Wallen-Delamot. Academy of Arts. 1764-1788. Leningrad

Simplicity and restraint are also characteristic of other buildings of this time. The Marble Palace (1768-1785), built by the architect A. Rinaldi (c. 1710-1794) in the central part of St. Petersburg, is indicative; its facades are distinguished by their clarity of composition and harmonious proportions.

What was outlined in the works of the 1760s later received a particularly vivid and consistent revelation in the works of the leading architects of that time - Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov, Quarenghi.

V. I. Bazhenov(1737-1799). Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov began studying at Ukhtomsky's school, then studied at Moscow University with Chevakinsky and finally graduated from the Academy of Arts. After a business trip abroad, he settled in Moscow, with which his largest buildings and projects are associated. A particularly prominent place among them belongs to the project of the Kremlin Palace and construction in Tsaritsyn near Moscow.

Il. 49. V. I. Bazhenov. Entrance pavilions of the Mikhailovsky Castle. 1798-1800. Leningrad

In 1768-1773, Bazhenov headed a design workshop - the so-called Model House, where work was carried out on the design of a grandiose new Kremlin palace. It was assumed that the palace would cover the entire Kremlin hill. In its courtyards and squares there were supposed to be ancient monuments of the Kremlin. In contrast to the characteristic techniques of palace buildings of the mid-century, Bazhenov puts the solution in the first place common tasks layouts. He plans to create a whole system of squares and passages connecting them on the territory of the Kremlin hill and plans the entire palace, taking into account the general layout and specific features of the area. In close connection with the new palace building (the main building of which was oriented towards the Moscow River), large buildings of the main administrative institutions of Moscow were also conceived. The entrance from Red Square through the Spassky Gate led to the main square (courtyard) in the form of a grandiose open-air hall with amphitheater-like seating for large gatherings. The main entrance to the palace should have been located nearby. The project of Bazhenov (1767-1775) was not implemented, but the grandiose model he created (now in GNIMA, ill. 51) had a strong impact on the development of architecture of that time.

Il. 51. V. I. Bazhenov. Model of the Kremlin Palace in Moscow. Fragment. 1773

In the construction of the ensemble in Tsaritsyn, Bazhenov also approached the task assigned to him boldly and in a new way. In contrast to the palace buildings of the mid-century, he created here a picturesque landscape park with small pavilions placed in it, organically connected with the specific areas on which they were built. In the unique architectural forms of Tsaritsyn buildings, Bazhenov tried to develop the traditions of ancient Moscow architecture. Abandoned at the end of the 18th century, these buildings have reached us in a dilapidated state.

Of Bazhenov’s buildings in Moscow, the former Pashkov House (1784-1786), now the old building of the V. I. Lenin Library, is of particular importance. The architect made good use of the terrain of the site and took into account the location of the building in close proximity to the Kremlin.

Bazhenov was not only a remarkable practical architect, he also belonged to the largest representatives of Russian artistic culture of the late 18th century. If many of his undertakings were not realized in the difficult conditions of that time, then his attempts to create a public art gallery in Moscow, the organization of an art school, the publication of a huge engraved work on Russian architecture, the project for reform of the Academy of Arts clearly testify to his progressive views and tireless desire to develop national Russian fine arts and architecture. This is Bazhenov - a man of glorious and at the same time almost tragic creative destiny.

M. F. Kazakov(1738-1812). Along with Bazhenov, Matvey Fedorovich Kazakov worked in Moscow, owing his education to the Ukhtomsky school. Kazakov's practical activity began in Tver, but his most important buildings were completed in Moscow. At first he was Bazhenov’s closest assistant in the Model House; in the mid-1770s, his independent work began. One of Kazakov’s first outstanding buildings was the Senate building in the Kremlin (1776-1787), now the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (ill. 50). Kazakov excellently took into account and used the features of the triangular-shaped site allocated for construction and created a building in which the monumentality of the overall appearance and the splendor of the composition are organically combined with the convenience and expediency of the plan, which was unusual for that time. In terms of interior decoration, the large round hall (now Sverdlovsk) is especially remarkable.

Il. 50. M. F. Kazakov. The Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin (now the building of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR). 1776-1787

Subsequently, Kazakov built many different buildings in Moscow, among which the most notable are the university (after the fire of 1812, restored by D. Gilardi, who changed the appearance, but retained the original general composition and layout) and the Golitsyn hospital (1796-1801, the first large city Moscow Hospital), which is one of the latest and most rigorous in style of the architect’s works.

I. E. Starov(1745-1808). One of the largest architects of this time, Ivan Yegorovich Staroye, also received his first knowledge of architecture in Ukhtomsky’s team, then graduated from the Academy of Arts and subsequently worked a lot in it as a teacher. Starov designed a lot for different cities, but his most important buildings are located in St. Petersburg. Among them, the largest is the Tauride Palace (1783-1789, ill. 53). The site on which it is located was not part of the city at the end of the 18th century, which made it possible to freely place the building, organize access to it by a canal from the Neva, and create a large park with it. The palace was intended for large celebrations and receptions associated with the celebrations of the annexation of Crimea to Russia. This explains the presence of state rooms in the palace. Behind the lobby there is a domed hall ("Russian Pantheon", as G.R. Derzhavin called it in his description of the palace), behind it, crossing the width of the entire building, there was a grandiose columned hall and behind - a winter garden, the walls of which adjoined an extensive park palace In terms of breadth and scope, solemnity and at the same time severity, the Tauride Palace was one of the most significant buildings of that time.

Il. 53. I. E. Starov. Tauride Palace. 1783-1789. Leningrad

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, large construction work was carried out Giacomo Quarenghi(1744-1817). Native Northern Italy, it was only after his arrival in Russia in 1779 that he got the opportunity to create major works. Among the numerous buildings made according to his designs, simple and laconic in form, public buildings also predominate - the Academy of Sciences (1783-1789), the State (Assignation, as it was called then) bank (1783-1790), shopping arcades, educational institutions, a hospital . One of the best buildings of Quarenghi is the building of an educational institution - the Smolny Institute (1806-1808, ill. 52).

Il. 52. D. Quarenghi. Smolny Institute. 1806-1808. Leningrad

Extremely simple and rational in plan, strict in appearance, it is inextricably linked for us with the events of the Great October Socialist Revolution.

In the suburbs of St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo and Pavlovsk - an architect worked in the last two decades of the 18th century Charles Cameron(1740s-1812). The Pavlovsk Palace (1782-1786) and the Cameron Gallery (1783-1786) in Tsarskoye Selo, which he built, are distinguished by their clarity of composition and elegance of decoration. The interiors of Catherine II’s private rooms in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoe Selo were unusually varied in composition and in the facing materials used.

During these years, significant construction took place not only in cities, but also in estates. Here, serf architects played a major role, closely associated with folk traditions and at the same time using new architectural techniques (the Ostankino estate near Moscow, created by serf craftsmen with the participation of the remarkable serf architect P. I. Argunov).

In the 1760s - 1790s, questions of the synthesis of arts were widely raised. Outstanding sculptors of that time worked in the field of decorative sculpture - Shubin, Kozlovsky, Prokofiev.

A lot of new things have been introduced into park construction. Regular gardens were replaced by landscape parks. The best examples of this type include: Tsaritsyno, Ostankino, Gatchina, Pavlovsk.

23. Architectural ensemble of Tsarskoye Selo.

Tsarskoe Selo - a pearl architecture XVIII century

A.I.Venediktov

The most significant phenomena of English architecture of the period under review date back to the last thirty years of the 17th century. The successor to the classic of English architecture, Inigo Jones, was Christopher Wren (1632-1723), who remained a leading master of English architecture throughout the first quarter of the 18th century.

Ren received a very broad education: before he turned entirely to architecture, he studied mathematics and astronomy. Having made a trip to France in 1665, he met Jules Hardouin-Mansart and other French architects and their works, as well as Bernini, who brought the Louvre project to Paris.

After the “Great Fire” of 1666, which destroyed most of London, Wren created a project for a radical redevelopment of the city, which, however, was rejected by the reactionary authorities. At the same time, Wren received the largest order for the construction of the new Cathedral of St. Paul and to draw up designs for one hundred burnt parish churches, of which he built more than fifty.

Cathedral of St. St. Paul's in London, built by Wren over thirty-six years (1675-1710), became the greatest religious building of the Protestant world (it surpasses the Cologne Cathedral in length, the height of the dome part - the Florentine Cathedral of Sanga Maria del Fiore). Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Peter's, built by many architects over more than a century and a half, was, as it were, deliberately contrasted with the London Protestant Cathedral, built by one master in one construction period, in just three and a half decades. The first project drawn up by Wren with a centric plan in the form of an equilateral cross with a vestibule was rejected by the conservative clergy. The second, completed project had a more traditional elongated shape with a main room divided by pillars and arches into three naves and a spacious under-dome space at the intersection of the naves with the transept.

Ren's mathematical knowledge came in handy in the difficult task of constructing a dome, which he solved brilliantly, with subtle and deep calculations. The design of the triple dome resting on eight pillars is complex and unusual: above the hemispherical inner brick shell there is a brick truncated cone, which carries the lantern and cross crowning the cathedral, as well as a third, wooden, lead-covered outer shell of the dome.

The appearance of the cathedral is spectacular. Two flights of wide steps lead from the west to six pairs of Corinthian columns of the entrance portico, above which are located four more pairs of columns with composite capitals, bearing a pediment with sculptural group in the tympanum. More modest semicircular porticoes are placed at both ends of the transept. On the sides of the main façade, slender towers were erected (one for bells, the other for clocks), behind them, above the central cross of the cathedral, rises a huge, majestic dome. The dome drum surrounded by columns seems especially powerful because every fourth intercolumnium of the colonnade (the so-called Stone Gallery) is laid with stone. Above the hemisphere of the dome itself, the second, so-called Golden Gallery forms a circuit around a lantern with a cross. The towering group of domes and towers overlooking London is undoubtedly the most successful part of the cathedral, the main body of which was difficult to perceive in its entirety as it remained hidden by the clutter of urban development (heavily damaged by bombing during the Second World War).

Ren's creative individuality is revealed no less clearly in his own works. works, such as London parish churches. The variety and wit of the square, rectangular, oval plans of these buildings, usually small sizes, the very configuration of which was often explained by the masterful use of cramped, inconvenient sites allocated for their construction. The architecture of the churches themselves and their bell towers is extremely diverse, sometimes close in form to Gothic, sometimes strictly classical. It is enough to name the domed church of St. Stephen (1672-1679), original in the composition of its interior space, or the church of St. Mary le Bow (1671-1680) with its slender bell tower, remarkable for the beauty of its silhouette.

Of Wren's civil works one of the most brilliant is the new parts of Hampton Court Palace. In 1689-1694. they built buildings around the so-called courtyard with a fountain and a façade facing the park. In this original work, the architect showed high skill, strict taste and the ability to effectively use materials - brick and white Portland stone.

A prolific craftsman, Ren built more than just palaces and churches. He finally developed the plan for Greenwich Hospital (the original plan of which, apparently, belongs to Inigo Jones), and also built another hospital in Chelsea. He developed the Temple district in London and built the town hall in Windsor. In Cambridge, he owns the building of the library of Trinity College (Trinity College), the prototype of which was the library of St. Stamp in Venice. In Oxford, where Wren taught astronomy in his youth, he built the so-called Sheldon Theater - a large round room for lectures and reports, which uses architectural motifs from the ancient Roman Theater of Marcellus; there he built the library at Queens College and the courtyard at Trinity College. The motifs of Venetian and Roman architecture used in these buildings received an original interpretation from Wren and went down in the history of English architecture as the creation of a national genius.

In residential country and city houses at this time, a type of brick building with white stone trim was created, which became a model for later English construction. Examples include the estates attributed to Wren at Groombridge Place in Kent and Swan House in Chichester.

Unlike Inigo Jones, Wren managed to realize almost all of his plans during his long and fruitful career. As a true humanist, Ren worked for education and the people; he built not only churches, but also hospitals, libraries, not only palaces, but also modest residential buildings. Wren followed the path indicated by Jones, but, unlike Jones, who absorbed the spirit of the Renaissance in Italy, the rational principle was more clearly expressed in the classicism of Wren, who survived the era of Puritanism.

In English architecture of the 18th century. The newly awakened passion for the work of Palladio was of great importance. By 1742, three editions of Palladio's architectural treatise had already been published. Since the middle of the century, the publication of independent research on ancient architecture. Robert Wood in 1753-1757 published a book dedicated to the ruins of Palmyra and Baalbek, Robert Adam published sketches and measurements of Diocletian's palace in Split in Dalmatia in 1764. All these publications contributed to the development of architectural theory and influenced the architectural practice of that time. New ideas were reflected in major urban planning events, for example, in the planning and development of the city of Bath (1725-1780), whose areas represent the most complete classicist ensembles in England. Architects of the 18th century were, in most cases, professionals and theorists.

John Vanbrugh (1664-1726) occupies an intermediate position between the multi-talented and educated masters of the 17th century and the narrow specialists of the 18th century. A brilliant officer, a court wit, a fashionable playwright, he remained a gifted amateur in architecture.

His main and largest works were built in the first years of the 18th century. palaces of Howard (1699-1712) and Blenheim (1705-1724).

Already in the first of them, trying to combine the Versailles scale with English comfort, he amazed his contemporaries primarily with the size of his building, the length of which was 200 m, the depth was almost 130 m, the height of the central dome exceeded 70 m. In the even more grandiose Blenheim Palace , built for the famous commander Duke of Marlborough (259 X 155 m), the architect tried to improve the somewhat awkward plan of the first building. Observing strict symmetry, he placed two more courtyards on both sides of the huge courtyard, which are connected to the main building by galleries decorated with a colonnade. In the external architecture of Blenheim Palace, neither the heavy portico of the main entrance, nor the triumphal arch of the park façade, nor the angular, seemingly built-on towers please the eye: the forms here are heavy and rough. The interior of the palace is uncomfortable and uncomfortable. The desire for strict pomp characteristic of classicism is rather mechanically combined in Vanbrugh with a superficial pomp dating back to the Baroque. In his architecture, as one of his contemporaries put it, “heavy in form and light in essence,” it is not difficult to detect obvious signs of eclecticism.

Nicholas Hawksmoor (1661-1736) was a more modest but more worthy successor to Wren. He led the construction of London churches, of which the most interesting is the Church of St. Mary Wulnos (1716-1719) with a facade decorated with rustication and a rectangular bell tower surrounded by columns, completed by two turrets with a balustrade. Hawksmoor worked after his teacher in Oxford, where he built a new building of Queens College with a monumental courtyard facade and a distinctive entrance (1710-1719). Finally, during Wren’s lifetime and after his death, Hawksmoor in 1705-1715. continued construction of Greenwich Hospital. Situated on the banks of the Thames, this one of the most significant monuments of English architecture both in size and artistic merit took its final form under Hawksmoor.

The large hospital complex, where the naval school is now located, consists of four buildings forming rectangular courtyards with a spacious area between the front buildings, porticoes of the facades facing the river. Wide steps, flanked by majestic domed buildings, lead to a second square between a second pair of courtyards. Hawksmoor worthily completed the construction begun by Jones and continued by Wren.

William Kent (1684-1748) was the most prominent English Palladian of the first half of the 18th century. Together with Lord Burlington, who fancied himself an architect, he designed and built a villa in Chiswick (1729), the most successful of the many English versions of Palladian Villa Rotunda. Kent felt more free during the construction of Holkham Hall Castle (1734), where four wings (with a chapel, library, kitchen and guest rooms) organically connected to the central building open onto the surrounding park. Kent's merits are especially great in landscape gardening, where he is known as the “father of the modern garden.”

The architect's most mature work is the sparsely shaped, orderless façade of the barracks of the Horse Guards Regiment (Horse Guards, 1742-1751) in London.

Architect and architectural theorist James Gibbs (1682-1765) is the most striking individual in English architecture of the first half of the 18th century. Having studied with Philippe Juvara in Turin, he also mastered Palladio's order and proportional systems. The most significant of his buildings, both in scale and in artistic merit, is the so-called Redcliffe Library in Oxford (1737-1749), a centric structure of exceptional originality, consisting of a sixteen-sided plinth, a cylindrical main part and a dome. The massive rusticated plinth is cut through by large arched door and window openings; the round part is divided by paired three-quarter columns into sixteen piers with two tiers of alternating windows and niches. Above the balustrade that completes the main cylindrical volume, a dome topped with a lantern rises. Fully expressing its purpose, the austere and monumental university library undoubtedly occupies one of the first places among the best monuments of English architecture.

Gibbs's London churches, the construction of which he continued following Wren and Hawksmoor, are also unique - the two-story church of St. Mary le Strand (1714-1717) with a semicircular portico of the entrance and a slender bell tower and the church of St. Martin in the Fields (1721-1726) with an impressive Corinthian portico.

William Chambers (1723-1796) was a consistent representative of Palladianism in England in the second half of the 18th century, when lesser English architects had already abandoned unsuccessful attempts to adapt the plans of Palladian villas to the conditions of the English climate and the requirements of English comfort.

Chambers summed up the past stage of English architecture in his architectural treatise and his largest building, known as Somerset House in London (1776-1786). This monumental building, built on arcades of substructures, overlooks the Strand and the Thames embankment with its rusticated facades (the façade facing the river was added later, in the 19th century). The Royal Academy was located on the premises of Somerset House in 1780.

The last Palladian, Chambers was the first representative of the academic movement in English architecture.

But Somerset House, especially the facade with its three-arched entrance from the Strand and the majestic courtyard of the building, worthily concludes a large and brilliant era in the history of English architecture.

Chambers's merits in the field of landscape architecture, where he promoted English landscape park. After Kent, he worked in Kew Park, where, in addition to classical pavilions, he built a Chinese pagoda as a tribute to the European fashion for “Chineseness” and as a memory of his trip to the Far East in his youth.

Robert Adam (1728-1792), another prominent English architect of the second half of the 18th century, is often contrasted with Chambers. While the conservative Chambers was a strict guardian of Palladian traditions in architecture, Adam, a preacher of “new tastes,” was to a certain extent an innovator in English art. Taking antiquity in a new way, paying particular attention to decorative motifs, he, in his own words, “revolutionized ornament.” The leading English architects of that time, led by him, did a lot to ensure that the new artistic trends he pursued spread from interior decoration (their example can be the vestibule of Wardour Castle in Wiltshire, created by the architect James Payne, see illustration) to furniture, fabrics, and porcelain.

A typical example of Adam's work is Kedleston Hall Castle (1765-1770), built and decorated inside according to a Palladian plan drawn up by other architects (with semicircular wings adjacent to central building). But the largest ceremonial rooms of the castle, located along the main axis, undoubtedly belong to Adam. The design of the large hall, where behind the Corinthian columns made of artificial marble supporting the stucco ceiling, there are antique statues in the niches of the walls, and the domed salon, the walls of which are dissected by niches and tabernacles, was probably inspired by the ancient monuments that Adam became acquainted with during a trip to Dalmatia, where he studied Diocletian's palace in Split. The finishing techniques of other, smaller rooms - stucco ceilings and walls, decoration of fireplaces - were even more in line with the new refined tastes. The graceful facade of the Boodle Club in London (1765) gives an idea of ​​how Adam decided on the appearance of the building.

Robert Adam's architectural activity was exceptionally wide. Together with the brothers James, John and William, his permanent employees, he built entire streets, squares, and quarters of London. Having overcome the previous Palladian isolation and isolation of architectural volume, the Adam brothers developed methods for forming integral city blocks (mainly residential buildings) on the basis of a single architectural ensemble. This is Fitzroy Square, the Adelphi quarter, named after the Adam brothers themselves (“adelphos” is Greek for “brother”). As a result of later redevelopment and rebuilding of the city (and also after aerial bombing during the Second World War), little survived from the extensive building activities of the Adam brothers. But the traditions of their art retained their importance in English architecture for a long time. The already strongly Hellenized style of the Adam brothers found its continuation in the so-called “Greek Revival”, the beginning of which dates back to the end of the 18th century, a direction that was not creatively original enough and was largely eclectic. This direction reached its full development in English architecture in the first decades of the next, 19th century.

Plan:

1. Introduction
2.) Main part.
I.) Architecture of the first half of the 18th century: Baroque
II.) Baroque architecture of the mid-18th century
III.) Prerequisites for the emergence and development of classicism
IV.) Architecture of early classicism (1760-1780)
V.) Architecture of strict classicism (1780-1800)
3.) Conclusion
4.) List of used literature

1. Introduction.
For many centuries of Russian history, wood remained the main material in the construction of buildings and structures. It was in wooden architecture that many construction and compositional techniques were developed that met the natural and climatic conditions and artistic tastes of the people, which later influenced the formation of stone architecture.
Frequent fires accelerated the replacement of wood with stone in important urban structures such as city walls, towers and temples. The wooden walls of the Novgorod brainchild with an earthen rampart and ditch are mentioned around 1044, and the first information about a stone fence dates back to 1302. The first information about the stone fence of Kyiv dates back to 1037, Staraya Ladoga - 1116, Moscow - 1367. Despite some differences in architecture in certain parts of Rus', it had a number of common features, determined by the same conditions of development. This allows us to talk about Russian architecture in general and its artistic manifestation in different regions of the country throughout the history of the people.
Architecture is a phenomenon derived from a specific functional need, depending both on construction and technical capabilities (building materials and structures), and on aesthetic ideas, determined by the artistic views and tastes of the people, their creative ideas.
When perceiving works of Russian architecture, regardless of the time of their construction and size, the proportionality of the relationship between man and building is clearly visible. A peasant hut, a city residential building, a church or other building - they are all on a human scale, which gives Russian architecture a humanistic character.

2.) Main part.
I.) Architecture of the first half of the 18th century: Baroque.
The seventeenth century marks the end of the 700-year period of ancient Russian stone construction, which has written more than one remarkable page in the chronicle of world architecture. The sprouts of new monetary and trade relations and a rational worldview are breaking through the ossified forms of Domostroevsky life and scholastic* dogmas of theology. The sound views of the serving nobility and the economically prosperous merchants affect many aspects of public life and its material shell - architecture. Trade expanded, especially at the end of the 17th century, with Germany, Flanders, and England. Cultural ties with Poland and Holland are becoming closer. The broadening of horizons and the penetration of elements of Western European artistic culture into art and architecture was facilitated by the joint creative work of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian craftsmen. The historical unity of three fraternal peoples, largely based on common architectural trends, mutually enriched their skills. Life urgently demanded the construction of guest courtyards, administrative buildings, industrial enterprises, posed new practical problems, and obliged architects to look for technical and artistic solutions. The centralization of state power was accompanied by regulation in the field of construction. Architectural and technical documentation is being normalized. Design and reporting materials are being improved, large-scale drawings are being mastered, and architectural and construction details are being unified.
The end of the 17th century is a connecting link between ancient Russian architecture and architecture of the XVII century, a time that prepared the ground for a new artistic worldview, promoting the creative perception of the order tectonic system and the formation of masters of architecture for the transition to regular civil construction.
At the beginning of the 17th century, St. Petersburg became the main construction center. In 1700, Russia began the Northern War against Sweden to liberate Russian lands and return the Neva banks to Russia. On May 1, 1703, Russian troops entered the Nyenschanz fortress (at the confluence of the Okhta and Neva rivers). the main task The northern war was decided by the capture of the fortress. Access to the Baltic Sea was open for Russia. It was only necessary to secure it and secure it. At the branching of the Neva into three branches, on a small Hare Island approximately 750 by 350 meters long and wide, on May 27, 1703, according to the drawings of Peter I and military engineers, a fortress of a new bastion type was founded - the Peter and Paul Fortress. To cover the mouth of the Neva from the sea, in 1703, construction of the naval base Kronshlot (Kronstadt) began on Kotlin Island. On the southern bank of the Neva, almost opposite the Peter and Paul Fortress, in 1704, according to the drawings of Peter I, a shipbuilding shipyard-fortress was founded - the Admiralty. Under the protection of three interacting fortresses, the construction of St. Petersburg began, which in 1712 became the new capital of Russia, proclaimed an empire in 1721.
__________
*Scholasticism (from the Greek scholastikos - school, scientist), a type of religious philosophy characterized by a combination of theological-dogmatic premises with rationalistic methodology and interest in formal-logical problems.

State and cultural transformations during the Peter the Great period brought to life industrial and public buildings and structures - fortifications, shipyards, factories, industrial and hospitality yards, colleges, hospitals, educational and museum premises, theaters and residential buildings. The development of St. Petersburg was carried out mainly along the banks of the Neva, its branches and channels, due to the severe swampiness of the soil and access to waterways.
The placement of city-forming structures was carried out according to the instructions of Peter I himself. Initially, settlements were grouped according to tradition into settlements. They were built in the form of peasant huts or city mansions with facades, sometimes
painted to resemble brickwork. The only example of the early period is the later recreated log house of Peter I on the banks of the Neva on the Petrograd side, painted on the outside to look like brick.
Since 1710, only brick houses began to be built. Despite forced resettlement measures in St. Petersburg, construction proceeded slowly. The ideological and political importance of the rapid construction of the capital put forward important tasks for architecture. The city had to be created based on advanced urban planning principles, ensuring its prestigious and representative character not only in its external architectural and artistic appearance, but also in its planning structure. There was a shortage of qualified architects. And in 1709, the Chancellery was established, which was in charge of all construction matters. A school for the initial study of architecture was created under it. It was hoped that the students of this school would gain deeper knowledge in architectural teams in the process of practical cooperation between experienced architects. However, the school and teams could not support the expanding capital construction. Peter I invited experienced architects from Western countries, which made it possible to almost immediately involve them in the construction of the city. They also select talented young people and send them to study engineering and architectural arts in Western European countries.
The following were invited to the new capital in 1710: Italians N. Michetti, G. Chiaveri, C. B. Rastrelli, Frenchman J. B. Leblon, Germans G. Matornovi, I. Schendel, A. Schlüter, Dutchman G. Van Boles. They had to not only build, but also train Russian architects from the students who worked with them. Italians came from Moscow - M. Fontana and fortification engineer and architect Domenico Trezzini. Gifted Russian architects I.P.Zarudny, D.V.Aksamitov, P.Potapov, M.I.Chochlakov, Ya.G.Bukhvostov, G.Ustinov and others successfully worked in Moscow. At the same time, the art of architecture was comprehended by those sent abroad who later became major architects: Ivan Korobov, Mordvinov and Ivan Michurin, Pyotr Eropkin, Timofey Usov and others. Thus, architects of different national schools worked in the new capital, but they created differently than in their homeland, obeying the tastes and requirements of customers, as well as adapting to the specific conditions of the city under construction. As a result of their activities, the architecture of St. Petersburg at that time became a unique fusion of native Russian artistic traditions and formal elements brought from Western European countries.

Russian, Italian, Dutch, German and French architects erected mansions, palaces, temples and government buildings in the Russian capital, the architecture of which had common artistic features that defined the architectural style, usually called Russian Baroque of the 18th century or Peter's Baroque.
All the diversity of individual creative views of various architects in practice was softened under the influence of two main factors: firstly, the influence of centuries-old Russian traditions, the carriers and conductors of which were the executors of architectural designs - numerous carpenters, masons, plasterers, molders and other construction craftsmen. Secondly, the role of the customers, and above all Peter I himself, who extremely carefully and demandingly examined all the design proposals of the architects, rejecting those that, from his point of view, did not correspond to the appearance of the capital, or making significant and sometimes decisive changes. Often he himself indicated where, what and how to build, becoming an architect. On his initiative, master plans for St. Petersburg were developed. The artistic commonality of St. Petersburg buildings of Peter the Great's time is also explained by the peculiarities of building materials. Houses in the capital were built of mud-dove type and brick, plastered in two colors (the walls were red, light brown or green, and the blades, pilasters, platbands, and rustications on the corners were white). To attract masons to St. Petersburg, Peter I in 1714 issued a decree prohibiting construction with stone and brick throughout Russia, except the capital. The features of the architectural style can be clearly seen when considering the surviving architectural works of that time, such as "Monplaisir" and "Hermitage" in Petegof, the building of the Kunstkamera and the Twelve Colleges in St. Petersburg, etc.
At the direction of Peter I, Domenico Trezzini (1670-1734), for the first time in Russian architecture, developed in 1714 exemplary designs for residential buildings intended for developers of different incomes: small one-story ones for the poorest population, larger ones for the nobles. The French architect J.B. Leblon (1679-1719) developed a project for a two-story house “for eminent people.” The model project “resembles a well-preserved summer palace Peter I, which was built by D. Trezzini in 1710-1714 in the summer garden.
Despite the simplicity of the “exemplary” residential building projects, they are all distinguished by the character of the facades with rhythmically placed openings, framed by platbands of restrained outlines and figured gates on the side. Unlike the medieval development of Russian cities, where residential buildings stood behind fences in the depths of plots, all houses in the capital had to face the red lines* of streets and embankments, forming the front of their development and thereby giving the city an organized appearance. This urban planning innovation is reflected in the development of Moscow. Along with residential buildings In St. Petersburg and its suburbs, palaces with representative facades and vast, richly decorated state rooms were built.
_____________________
* Conditional boundary in urban planning, separating the roadway of the street from the building area

Decorative sculpture began to be used in combination with architecture, and picturesque decoration began to be used in interiors. Country and suburban residences with gardens are being created. The largest public buildings created by D. Trezzini that have survived to this day are the Peter and Paul Cathedral and the building of the Twelve Colleges. From under the arch of the Peter's Gate, the Peter and Paul Cathedral (1712-1733) clearly appears. The dynamic silhouette of the cathedral's bell tower, crowned with a high gilded spire and a weather vane in the form of an angel, rises from behind the walls of the fortress to 122 meters, becoming one of the most expressive dominants in the panorama of the city on the Neva. The cathedral marked a complete departure from the compositional traditionalism of Russian temple construction. The cathedral was an innovative phenomenon for Russia. In its plan and appearance, it is not similar to Orthodox, cross-domed, five-domed or hipped churches. The cathedral is a rectangular building, elongated from west to east. The interior space of the cathedral is divided by powerful pylons* into three almost equal and identical in height (16 meters) spans. This type is called hall, in contrast to churches, in which, with the same plan, the middle span is higher and often wider than the side ones. The layout and silhouette composition of the cathedral were based on the structure of Baltic Lutheran hall-type churches with a bell tower topped with a spire. It was he who was supposed to become a symbol of the establishment of Russia at the mouth of the Neva and a symbol of the creative power of the Russian people. The spire, the prominent end of church bell towers, was a typical phenomenon for Peter's Petersburg, determining the silhouette character of the city's development in the first third of the 18th century. The interior decoration should also be noted - a wooden carved gilded iconostasis in the Baroque style. The iconostasis was made under the direction of the architect and artist I.P. Zarudny (1722-1727) by an artel of Moscow craftsmen.
On Vasilievsky Island, the political center of the capital was formed and, according to the project of D. Trezzini, a building of twelve colleges was being erected (10 colleges - government bodies; the Senate and the Synod). The three-story building, 400 meters long, consists of twelve identical buildings with separate roofs and porticoes, connected at the ends. All buildings are united by an open arcade** with a long corridor on the second floor. According to the tradition of Peter the Great's time, the building was painted in two colors: brick red and white. The original decoration of the interiors in the form of stucco decoration has been preserved only in the Petrovsky Hall. The architectural value of that time should be noted for the palace of A.D. Menshikov (1710-1720). The three-tier order system of the facade with tiered rhythmic rows of pilasters was based on the artistic principles of Italian Renaissance architecture. The most remarkable architectural heritage is the state rooms, lined with Dutch tiles and the main staircase with columns and pilasters of the Baroque order.
______________
*Pylon (from the Greek pylon, lit. - gate, entrance), massive pillars that serve as a support for ceilings or stand on the sides of entrances or driveways.
**Arcade (French arcade), a series of identical arches supported by columns or pillars.

The use of orders in the architecture of St. Petersburg was a continuation of the traditions embodied in many buildings in Moscow of an earlier time. The original silhouette of the Kunstkamera building occupies a special place in the panorama of the banks of the Neva. The two wings of the three-story building on the ground floor are united by a four-story tower. The angles of the risalits* and the fractures of the tower walls, combined with the two-tone coloring of the facade, give the building an elegant look. The silhouette of the tower clearly shows the continuity of the traditional stepped multi-tiered buildings of Moscow at the beginning of the 18th century. After the fire, the façade was simplified during restoration.
In 1710, Peter I issued a decree obliging construction south coast Gulf of Finland. Palace and park ensembles are being built in Peterhof. By 1725, a two-story Nagorny Palace was erected. IN further palace underwent reconstruction and was expanded in the middle of the 18th century. Architect Rastrelli.
During the same period, a small palace was built near the bay itself, consisting of several rooms for Peter I and a state hall - the Monplaisir Palace. The Hermitage pavilion for privacy and the small two-story Marly palace were built.
In addition to St. Petersburg, construction was carried out in Moscow and other cities of the Russian Empire. As a result of the fire in Moscow in 1699, it was forbidden to erect wooden buildings in fire areas.
At the same time, the formal artistic convergence of the architecture of stone buildings in Moscow with Western European architecture, which began at the end of the 17th century, became even more noticeable at the beginning of the 18th century. An example of this is: the palace of F.Ya. Lefort on the Yauza (1697-1699); Old Mint (1697); Church of the Assumption on Pokrovka (1695-1699); Church of the Sign in Dubrovitsy (1690-1704). This indicates that domestic architects knew the order tectonic system and could skillfully combine order and other elements with Russian traditional techniques. An example of such a combination is the Lefortovo Palace in Nemetskaya Sloboda, built by one of the Moscow architects. The facades of the palace are divided by the measured rhythm of pilasters of the great Corinthian order. On the sides of the entrance arch their rhythm changes and they form a pilaster portico with a pediment. The planned system at the same time is a composition of a closed square, adopted in Rus' for trading and other yards.
In the 18th century, the order system became a common decorative technique for giving various buildings an elegant appearance.
This is evidenced by the artistic design of the main entrance to the courtyard
Arsenal (1702-1736) in the Kremlin, which represents a skillful transformation of orders combined with an abundance of decorative relief details. Remarkable in its architecture and artistic significance in Moscow architecture is the Church of the Archangel Gabriel (1701-1707), created by the architect I.P. Zarudny (1670-1727). The architect showed excellent skill in using order systems. The load-bearing part of the church volumes is designed using a large order, which is combined with elegant compositions of porticoes at the entrance made of two light columns
________
*Rizalit (from Italian risalita - protrusion), part of the building protruding beyond the main building. façade line; usually located symmetrically relative to to the central axis of the facade.

Corinthian order supporting a decoratively designed entablature with a balustrade. The order in the building expresses the tectonics of the exhibition.
A new direction in the church architecture of Moscow, clearly expressed in the architecture of the Church of the Archangel Gabriel (Menshikov Tower), consisting in a harmonious combination of traditional Russian volumetric-spatial composition with formal elements of the new style, left an interesting example in Moscow - the Church of John the Warrior (1709-1713) on Yakimanka.
Architects I.A. Mordvinov and I.F. Michurin (1700-1763) were sent from St. Petersburg to Moscow. They were involved in drawing up plans for the Kremlin, Kitai-gorod and partly the White City in connection with the move of the royal court to Moscow and construction along the banks of the Yauza palaces of the court nobility. Michurin in 1734-1739 drew up a plan for Moscow, which represents a significant urban planning document of Moscow in the 18th century. It depicted the development of the city at that time. Other Russian cities continued to develop. An interesting example of the durability of national architectural traditions in the province is the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Kazan (1726).

II.) Baroque architecture of the mid-18th century.
During the period described, V.N. Tatishchev and M.V. Lomonosov laid the foundations of Russian historical science. Russian science and culture are of a high level, not inferior to European ones. Thanks to this, the first university was opened in Russia in 1755, and the Academy of Arts was opened in St. Petersburg, which played a major role in the development of the art and architecture of classicism.
Russia in the middle of the 18th century became one of the most developed European countries. All this determined the solemn and decorative appearance of palaces and temples - the main types of monumental buildings in Russia during this period. The most outstanding architects of that time included students of I.K. Korobov-S.I. Chevakinsky and D.V. Ukhtomsky. The largest architect of the mid-18th century was F.B. Rastrelli. At the same time, many unknown serf architects, painters, sculptors, carvers and other masters of applied art were working with him.
In the middle of the 18th century, the Baroque style in Russia had pronounced original features due to the continuity of decorative compositional techniques of Russian architecture of the early 18th century. One cannot help but emphasize the specific national feature of Baroque architecture in the mid-18th century - the polychromy of facades, the walls of which are painted blue, red, yellow and green. This is complemented by beams of columns, pilasters, and framed windows. A characteristic feature of architectural works is that groups of buildings or buildings often form a closed architectural ensemble, revealing itself only when one penetrates inside it. In palace and church premises, along with stucco picturesque decoration of walls and ceilings, multi-colored patterned floors were made from different types of wood. The ceiling painting creates the illusion of the infinity of the rising hall, which is emphasized by figures of different proportions floating in the sky, clearly separating their different distances from the viewer. The walls of the front rooms were framed with complex profiled gilded rods. The techniques for planning the halls are interesting. In palaces they are located according to the principle that the doors of passage halls are on a common axis, and their width illusorily increases.
Imperial and estate palaces were created in unity with gardens and parks, which were characterized by a regular planning system with straight alleys, trimmed tree vegetation and ornamental flower beds. In this section, special mention should be made of the works of Rastrelli's chief architect Francesco Bartolomeo (1700-1771), whose work reached its apogee in 1740-1750. The main works include: the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg; palaces in Courland (Latvia), in Rundava and Mitava (Jelgava); palaces of the Elizabethan nobles M.I. Vorontsov and S.G. Stroganov in St. Petersburg; imperial palaces- Winter in the capital, Bolshoi (Catherine) in Tsarskoe Selo (Pushkin), Grand Palace in Peterhof, St. Andrew's Church and Mariinsky Palace in Kyiv. All of them characterize the Baroque style of the mid-18th century in Russia. The architect S.I. Chevakinsky worked simultaneously with F.B. Rastrelli. (1713-1770). The most remarkable creation of Chevakinsky S.I. surviving to this day was the design and construction of the huge two-story St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral (1753-1762) in St. Petersburg. Chevakinsky’s student was the future architect V.I. Bazhenov.
The largest representative of the Moscow Baroque of the mid-18th century was the architect D.V. Ukhtomsky. (1719-1774). His work developed under the influence of the artistic views and works of F.B. Rastrelli, in particular in Moscow and the Moscow region: palaces in the Kremlin, Annegof and Perov. Only one work by Ukhtomsky has survived to this day - the five-tiered bell tower in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra in Zagorsk.

III.) Prerequisites for the emergence and development of classicism.
In the 1760s, a change in architectural and artistic style occurred in Russia. Decorative Baroque, which reached its apogee in the work of the greatest representative of this trend - the architect F.B. Rastrelli, gave way to classicism, which quickly established itself in St. Petersburg and Moscow, and then spread throughout the country. Classicism (from Latin - exemplary) is an artistic style that develops through the creative borrowing of forms, compositions and examples of art from the ancient world and the Italian Renaissance.
The architecture of classicism is characterized by geometrically correct plans, logic and balance of symmetrical compositions, strict harmony of proportions and the widespread use of the order tectonic system. The decorative style of the Baroque ceased to correspond to the economic capabilities of the circle of customers, which was increasingly expanding to include small landed nobles and merchants. It also ceased to respond to changing aesthetic views.
The development of architecture is determined by economic and social factors. The country's economy led to the formation of an extensive domestic market and increased foreign trade, which contributed to the productivity of landowners' farms, crafts and industrial production. As a result, the need arose for the construction of government and privately owned structures, often of national importance. These included commercial buildings: guest courtyards, markets, fairgrounds, contract houses, shops, and various warehouse buildings. As well as unique public buildings - stock exchanges and banks.
Many government administrative buildings began to be built in cities: governor's houses, hospitals, prison castles, barracks for military garrisons. Culture and education developed intensively, which necessitated the construction of many buildings, educational institutions, various academies, institutes - boarding houses for noble and middle-class children, theaters and libraries. Cities grew rapidly, primarily due to estate-type residential development. In the conditions of enormous construction taking place in cities and estates, increased construction needs, architectural techniques and busy forms of Baroque, exquisitely complex and magnificent, turned out to be unacceptable, since the decorativeness of this style required significant material costs and a large number of qualified craftsmen of various specialties. Based on the above, there was an urgent need to revise the fundamentals of architecture. Thus, deep domestic preconditions of a material and ideological nature determined the crisis of the Baroque style, its extinction and led in Russia to the search for economic and realistic architecture. Therefore, it was the classical architecture of antiquity, expedient, simple and clear and at the same time expressive, that served as a standard of beauty and became a kind of ideal, the basis of classicism emerging in Russia.

IV.) Architecture of early classicism (1760-1780).
To guide widespread urban planning activities, a commission on the stone construction of St. Petersburg and Moscow was established in December 1762. Created to regulate the development of both capitals, it soon began to manage all urban planning in the country. The commission functioned until 1796. During this period, it was successively led by prominent architects: A.V. Kvasov (1763-1772); I.E. Starov (1772-1774); I. Lem (1775-1796). In addition to regulating the planning of St. Petersburg and Moscow, the commission over 34 years created master plans for 24 cities (Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Tomsk, Pskov, Voronezh, Vitebsk and others). The main city-forming factors were considered to be water and land routes, established administrative and commercial areas, and clear city boundaries. Streamlining urban planning based on a geometrically regular rectangular system. The construction of city streets and squares was regulated by height. The main streets and squares were to be lined with model houses, placed close to each other. This contributed to the unity of street organization. Architectural appearance houses was determined by several approved model façade designs. They were simple architectural solutions, their planes were enlivened only by the figured repeating frames of the window openings.
In Russian cities, residential buildings usually had one or two floors, only in St. Petersburg the number of floors rose to three or four. During this period, A.V. Kvasov developed a project for the improvement of the Fontanka River embankment. The formation of through passage embankments and bridgehead areas turned the Fontanka into an important arc-forming highway. For Moscow in 1775, a new master plan was drawn up, preserving the radial-ring structure and outlining a system of squares in a semi-ring covering the Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod. For consideration and approval of privately owned development projects in 1775-1778. a special Stone Order functioned. In the 1760s, features of classicism began to appear more and more noticeably in Russian architecture. The earliest manifestation of classicism was the project of the "Pleasure House" in Oranienbaum (now does not exist). Compiled by the architect A.F. Kokorin and the so-called Boat House of A.F. Vista (1761-1762) in the Peter and Paul Fortress.
During this period, famous architects worked in Russia: Yu.M. Felten and K.M. Blank, the Italian A. Rinaldi, the Frenchman T.B. Wallen-Delamont. Considering this period in the chronological sequence of construction of buildings, it should be noted that classical forms and clear compositional techniques increasingly replaced excessive decorativeness. Here it is necessary to consider the main creations of architects that have survived to this day. Antonio Rinaldi (1710-1794) - Chinese Palace (1762-1768) in Oranienbaum. The interior of the palace testifies to the high artistic skill of the architect. The whimsical outlines of the palace were in harmony with the surrounding park composition, with an artificial reservoir and beautifully decorated vegetation. The environment of the ceremonial premises of the one-story palace is especially distinguished by its majestic beauty - Big hall, Oval Hall, Hall of Music. Chinese cabinet with elements of decoration, Glass bead cabinet. The Rolling Hill Pavilion (1762-1774) is a well-preserved three-story pavilion with colonnades of bypass galleries on the second and third floors. The pavilion in Lomonosov is the only surviving reminder of folk entertainment. The Marble Palace (1768-1785) is one of the unique phenomena of St. Petersburg and Russia, thanks to the multi-colored cladding of the facades. The three-story building is located on the site between the Neva and the Field of Mars and has a U-shaped composition with wings forming a rather deep front courtyard. The palace in Gatchina (1766-1781) is three-story with a passage gallery, at the bottom the main building is complemented by pentagonal six-tiered view towers and arched two-story wings covering the front courtyard. After the transfer of the palace to Tsarevich Pavel (1783), it was rebuilt inside and supplemented with closed squares at the ends of the original composition by V.F. Brenna.
The restrained plasticity of the facades is complemented by the nobility of the local stone - light gray Pudost limestone. The ceremonial interiors are located on the second floor, the most significant of which are the White Hall, the Antechamber, the marble dining room and others. The palace was destroyed during the years of fascist occupation. Now restored. In addition to those mentioned above, A. Rinaldi built several Orthodox churches, the peculiarity of which is the combination in one composition of a five-domed structure, newly established in the Baroque period, and a high multi-tiered bell tower. The artificial use of classical orders, their tiered arrangement on bell towers and the delicate layout of the facades testify to the stylistic reality of artistic images, which corresponds to early classicism. In addition to monumental buildings, A. Rinaldi created a number of memorial structures. These include the Oryol Gate (1777-1782); Chesme Column (171-1778) in Pushkin; Chesma obelisk in Gatchina (1755-1778). The establishment of the Academy of Arts in 1757 brought about new architects, both Russian and foreign. These include A.F. Kokorinov (1726-1772), who came from Moscow, and J.B. Vallin-Delamont (1729-1800), invited from France by I.I. Shuvalov. The creations of these architects include the palace of G.A. Demidov. A special feature of the Demidov Palace is the cast-iron external terrace and cast-iron stairs with arched diverging flights connecting the palace with the garden. The building of the Academy of Arts (1764-1788) on the Universitetskaya embankment of Vasilyevsky Island. The buildings clearly show the style of early classicism. This should include the main building of the Herzen Pedagogical Institute. Northern façade of the Small Hermitage; Construction of a large Gostiny Dvor, built on foundations laid along the contour of the entire block. A.F. Kokorinov and J.B. Vallin-Delamont created palace ensembles in Russia that reflected the architecture of Parisian mansions and hotels with a closed front courtyard. An example of this could be the palace of I.G. Chernyshev, which has not survived to this day. In the middle of the 19th century, in its place near the Blue Bridge, the Mariinsky Palace was erected by the architect A.I. Stackenschneider. During the same period, the architect Yu.M. Felton launched a large construction activity. His work was formed under the influence of F.B. Rastrelli, and then he began to create within the framework of early classicism. The most significant creations of Felten are: the building of the Great Hermitage, the Alexander Institute, located next to the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery. The institute building with three courtyards has well preserved its original appearance, consistent with early classicism. The most perfect work of Yu.M. Felten is the fence of the Summer Garden from the side of the Neva embankment (1770-1784). It was created with the creative participation of P.E. Egorov (1731-1789); the iron links were forged by Tula blacksmiths, and the granite pillars with figured vases and the granite base were made by Putilov stonemasons. The fence is distinguished by simplicity, amazing proportionality and harmony of parts and the whole. The turn of Russian architecture towards classicism in Moscow was most clearly manifested in the huge ensemble of the Orphanage, erected in (1764-1770), not far from the Kremlin on the banks of the Moscow River according to the plans of the architect K.I. Blank (1728-1793). In the Kuskovo estate near Moscow, K.I. Blank erected the impressive Hermitage pavilion in 1860. In accordance with the emergence and development of classicism, the regular French system of gardening art was replaced by the landscape (English system), which spread to Western Europe and above all in England.

V.) Architecture of strict classicism (1780-1800)
The last quarter of the eighteenth century was marked by major socio-historical events (Crimea and the northern coast of the Black Sea were assigned to Russia). The state's economy developed rapidly. An all-Russian market, fairs and shopping centers were formed. The metallurgical industry developed significantly. Trade with Central Asia and China expanded. The revitalization of economic life contributed to the quantitative and qualitative growth of cities and landowners' estates. All these phenomena are noticeably reflected in urban planning and architecture. The architecture of the Russian province was characterized by two features: most cities received new general plans. The architecture of cities, especially urban centers, was formed on the basis of techniques of strict classicism. Along with the types of buildings previously known, new structures began to be built in cities. In cities that still retained traces of defensive structures, they increasingly disappeared as a result of the implementation of new plans, and these cities acquired urban planning features characteristic of most Russian cities. Estate construction expanded, especially in the south of Russia and the Volga region. At the same time, a system was developed for the placement of various outbuildings depending on natural conditions . In the provincial estates of noble owners, manor houses were stone buildings of the palace type. The ceremonial architecture of classicism with porticoes became the personification of social and economic prestige. During the period under review, outstanding Russian architects created architectural creations that are the property of not only Russia, but the whole world. Some of them, namely: Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov (1737-1799) - construction of the Grand Kremlin Palace and college buildings on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin. Despite the fact that the outstanding plan was realized, its significance for the fate of Russian architecture was not great, first of all, for the final establishment of classicism as the main stylistic direction in the development of Russian architecture. Creation of a country royal palace and park residence in the village of Tsaritsyno near Moscow. All buildings of the ensemble are located on rough terrain, parts of which are connected by two figured bridges, resulting in a single, unusually beautiful panorama that has no analogues in the history of architecture. Pashkov House (1784-1786), now the old building of the V.I. Lenin Library. Consisting of three different parts, the silhouette composition of the house crowning a green hillock is still one of the most perfect works of all Russian classicism of the late 18th century. The culmination of Bazhenov’s creativity was the project of the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg (1797-1800). The castle was built without the participation of an architect; the managing builder was V.F. Brenna, who made significant changes to the interpretation of the main facade. Kazakov M.F.: Petrovsky Palace - he gave the appearance of the palace a pronounced national character, the ensemble of the Petrovsky Palace is an outstanding example of a harmonious architectural synthesis of classical principles and Russian national painting. The Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin - the Senate rotunda is recognized in the architecture of Russian classicism as the best ceremonial round hall and is the first example of a composition of this type in Russia. This hall is an important link in the development of Russian classicism. Church of Philip Metropolitan (1777-1788). A classic Russian composition was used in relation to an Orthodox church. In the second half of the 18th century, the rotunda began to be embodied in the architecture of Russian classicism when creating religious buildings; it was also used in the construction of the Baryshnikov mausoleum near Smolensk (1784-1802). Golitsyn Hospital (now the first city hospital of Pirogov). University building (1786-1793). The University building was damaged in 1812 and was rebuilt with changes in 1817-1819.
The approval of the new general plan for Moscow in 1775 stimulated privately owned residential development, which developed widely in 1780-1800. By this time, two space-planning types of urban estates had finally been developed - the first main residential building and outbuildings located along the red line of the street, forming a three-part system that forms the development front; the second is a residential estate with an open front courtyard surrounded by wings and outbuildings. Since the 1770s, the development of classicism based on the ancient Roman principles of the Renaissance has been clearly visible in St. Petersburg construction. Some of them, namely: architect Starov I.E. (1745-1808) erects the Tauride Palace (1883-1789) with a landscape garden; Trinity Cathedral (1778-1790) in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. The construction of the cathedral had an important ideological and patriotic significance, since under the arches of the temple there is the tomb of Alexander Nevsky. In addition to the greatest buildings mentioned above, Starov was engaged in design for the southern provinces, developed plans for the new cities of Nikolaev and Yekaterinoslavl; in the latter, the architect built the palace of the governor of the region - G.A. Potemkin.
Architect Volkov F.I. (1755-1803). By 1790, he developed exemplary designs for barracks buildings, subordinating their appearance to the principles of classicism. The largest works are the building of the Naval Cadet Corps (1796-1798) on the Neva embankment. Ensemble of the General Post Office (1782-1789).
Architect Quarenghi and Giacomo (1744-1817). Quarenghi's creations clearly embody the features of strict classicism. Some of them: the dacha of A.A. Bezborodko (1783-1788). The building of the Academy of Sciences (1783-1789), the Hermitage Theater (1783-1787), the building of the Assignation Bank (1783-1790), the Alexander Palace (1792-1796) in Tsarskoye Selo, the Arc de Triomphe in 1814 - Narva Gate.
Important landscaping work continued in St. Petersburg. Granite embankments of the Neva, small rivers and channels were created. Remarkable architectural monuments were erected, which became important city-forming elements. On the banks of the Neva, before the unfinished construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral, one of the best equestrian elements in Europe was unveiled in 1782 - a monument to Peter I (sculptor E.M. Falcone and M.A. Collo; the snake was made by sculptor F.G. Gordeev). A wonderful bronze hollow sculptural composition on a natural granite rock. The size of the rock (10.1 meters high, 14.5 meters long, 5.5 meters wide) corresponded to a spacious coastal area. Another monument to Peter I was installed in the ensemble of the Mikhailovsky Castle (1800). A bronze equestrian statue was used (sculptor K.B. Rastreli - father, architect F.I. Volkov, bas-reliefs - sculptors V.I. Demont-Malinovsky, I.I. Terebinov, I. Moiseev under the direction of M.I. Kozlovsky) . In 1799, a 14-meter obelisk “Rumyantsev” was erected on Tsaritsyn Meadow (Field of Mars) (architect V.F. Brenna); in 1818 it was moved to Vasilyevsky Island to the First Cadet Corps, where the outstanding military leader P.A. Rumyantsev studied. In 1801, on Tsaritsyn Meadow there was
A monument to the great Russian commander A.V. Suvorov was opened (sculptor M.I. Kozlovsky, moved closer to the bank of the Neva.

3.) Conclusion.
The most important progressive traditions of Russian architecture, which are of great importance for the practice of late architecture, are ensemble and urban planning art. If the desire to form architectural ensembles initially was of an intuitive nature, then later it became conscious.
Architecture was transformed over time, but nevertheless, some features of Russian architecture existed and developed over the centuries, maintaining traditional stability until the 20th century, when the cosmopolitan essence of imperialism began to gradually erase them.

4.) List of used literature .

Arkin D.E. Russian architectural treatise-code of the 18th century. Architectural expedition position. - In the book: Architectural archive. M., 1946.

Belekhov N.N., Petrov A.N. Ivan Starov. M., 1950.

Pilyavsky V.I. History of Russian architecture. L., 1984.

Description of the presentation Culture of Russia of the 18th century Architecture B by slides

Architecture The works of the largest Russian architects of the 18th century embodied the best national traditions Russian architecture enriched with world heritage. The Mongol-Tatar system of city construction (radial rings with a square in the center) was replaced by the European one - to build cities according to a plan. The Byzantine style is being replaced by a lighter, Italian - Baroque.

Francesco Rastrelli (1700 - 1771) Born in Italy, but in 1716 he came to Russia with his father. He is the author of the largest palace ensembles: Winter Palace Great Palace in Peterhof Great Catherine Palace Stroganov Palace Smolny Palace St. Andrew's Church in Kyiv

Winter Palace The Grand Palace in Peterhof Richly decorated state rooms, plastered to resemble marble, with painted ceilings, inlaid parquet and gilded walls. The sculptures and vases installed above the cornice along the entire perimeter of the building add elegance and splendor to the silhouette of the building.

The Catherine Palace is one of the most famous buildings of the architect. The architect masterfully uses his favorite artistic means: the spatial scope of the composition, plasticity, relief of architectural forms, the expressive rhythm of the colonnades, the active inclusion of sculpture in the decor. The color scheme characteristic of Rastrelli is also fully used: the contrast of white columns, the azure-blue field of the walls and the gold of the architectural decor.

Classicism in architecture In the 60s, classicism replaced decorative baroque. Features: symmetry of compositions, harmony of proportions, geometrically correct plans, restraint, rigor

V. I. Bazhenov (1737 - 1790) Son of a sexton of one of the Kremlin court churches. He studied at the school of D.V. Ukhtomsky and at the gymnasium of Moscow University, and worked in St. Petersburg. From the Academy of Arts he was sent to study in France and Italy.

Vladimir Church in Bykovo Pashkov House Two main facades - one looks at the roadway and has a solemn character, the other is oriented towards the courtyard and has a more comfortable appearance. A bizarre combination of Baroque and Gothic forms.

M. F. Kazakov (1738 - 1812) In Moscow, he developed types of urban residential buildings and public buildings that organize large urban spaces: the Senate in the Kremlin (1776 -87), the university (1786 -93), the Golitsyn hospital (1796 -1801), estate houses of Demidov (1779 -91), Gubin (1790s). He used a large order in interior design (Column Hall of the House of Unions). He supervised the preparation of the master plan for Moscow and organized an architectural school.

The Senate Palace was Kazakov's largest realized project. According to the architect's idea, the building was supposed to symbolize civil ideals, legality and justice, and the architects found the embodiment of these ideals in the classical forms of antiquity. This explains the strict and restrained laconicism of the building, topped with a dome, the classical form of which Kazakov wanted to enhance the architectural expressiveness of Red Square as the main square of the capital.

Architectural style - Classicism Architect - Vincenzo Brenna Founder - Paul I Founding date - February 26 (March 9) 1797 Construction 1797-1801

Sculpture In the second half of the 18th century. The foundations of Russian sculpture were laid. It developed slowly, but Russian educational thought and Russian classicism were the greatest incentives for the development of great civic ideas.

F. I. Shubin (1740 – 1805) Worked in an era when the idea of ​​the value of the human spiritual world penetrated into the art of sculptural portraiture. He worked mainly with marble, very rarely turning to bronze. His works belong to the genre of classicism. Most of his sculptural portraits are in the form of busts.

I. P. Martos (1754 - 1835) I. Martos was an artist of a wide range, but he became especially famous as the author of magnificent monuments and classical tombstones.

Monument to Minin and Pozharsky. Dedicated to Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky, leaders of the second people's militia during the Polish intervention in the Time of Troubles, and the victory over Poland in 1612. The monument was built in 1818.

By advice. Didroempress. Catherine. II entrusted the sculptor Falcon with the creation of an equestrian monument. Petru. I. The wax sketch was made again. In Paris, after the master’s arrival in Russia in 1766, work began on a plaster model the size of a statue. Embossed on the steel pedestal is the laconic inscription “Petroprimo. Catharina secunda" (“To Peter. The First. Catherine. The Second”) was made according to a proposal. Falcon with minor editing itself. Catherine, the inscription initially looked like “Petra. First of all. Catherine the Second". The finishing of the bronze after casting (which was done by the cannon maker Emelyan Khailov) in 1775 was carried out by Falcon himself. Having left. Russia in 1778 before the installation of the monument (the grand opening of the monument was timed to coincide with the twentieth anniversary of the reign of Catherine II on August 7, 1782), Falcone left. Holland and returned to 1781. France. For the last 10 years of his life, crippled by paralysis, he was unable to work or create. Etienne Falconet

Painting of the 18th century turned out to be unusually rich in talented artists. The paintings were distinguished by a variety of genres: from traditional portraits and historical painting to theatrical scenery, landscapes, still lifes, and scenes from folk life.

Portraiture The main place in the painting of the 18th century is occupied by the portrait. Portrait (French portrait, from Old French portraire - “to reproduce something feature by feature”) is an image or description of a person or group of people who exist or existed in reality.

I. P. Argunov (1729 – 1802) I. P. Argunov does not idealize the model’s appearance; he boldly conveys the squinting eyes and some puffiness of the face. At the same time, the artist’s masterful use of the brush in conveying texture and the sophistication of shadows attract attention.

Of the later works of I. P. Argunov, the most famous is “Portrait of an unknown peasant woman in a Russian dress.” It is now believed that the depiction was of a wet nurse, which is confirmed by the model’s costume. The artist embodied his idea of ​​female beauty on canvas.

D. G Levitsky (1735 – 1822) Levitsky’s works are characterized by a bright individuality of images. He is able to find an expressive pose and gesture, to combine the intensity of color with tonal unity and richness of shades.

In 1773, one of the most interesting works of D. Levitsky was created - a portrait of the philosopher Denis Diderot, a French encyclopedist philosopher and writer. The energy, creative restlessness and spiritual nobility of which were so vividly and directly conveyed by the Russian artist.

A. P. Antropov (1716 - 1795) A. P. Antropov avoided depicting superficial grace in portraits. His images are concrete, realistic and at the same time psychological.

Coronation portrait of Peter III (1762). The Emperor is depicted as if he had “run” into magnificent chambers: uncertainty, spiritual disharmony against the backdrop of a luxurious interior - this is what A.P. Antropov perspicaciously saw.

Rokotov. Fedor. Stepanovich The largest Moscow portrait painter who worked during the Russian Enlightenment. Perhaps the first “free artist” in Russia who did not depend on state and church orders.

Historical painting A genre of painting that originates in the Renaissance and includes works not only based on real events, but also mythological, biblical and evangelical paintings. Depicts events of the past that are important for an individual nation or all of humanity.

A. P. Losenko (1737 -1773) Founder of Russian historical painting. From 1753 he studied painting with I.P. Argunov, and from 1759 at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. He continued his studies in Paris and the French Academy in Rome.

Vladimir in front of Rogneda, 1770 Wonderful catch,

Literature The main trend in the literature of the 18th century was classicism. Russian classicism attached special importance to “high” genres: Epic poem Tragedy Solemn ode Since the 70s of the 18th century, a new direction has emerged - sentimentalism. New genres appear with it: Travel Sensitive story

D. I. Fonvizin (1745 - 1792) Fonvizin was not only a major and talented playwright of the 18th century. He is one of the founders of Russian prose, a wonderful political writer, a truly great Russian educator, who fearlessly fought against tyranny for a quarter of a century.

G. R. Derzhavin (1743 – 1816) The main object of Derzhavin’s poetics is man as a unique individual in all the richness of personal tastes and preferences. Many of his odes are philosophical in nature, they discuss the place and purpose of man on earth, the problems of life and death.

Writers and poets of the 18th century. A. D. Kantemir 1708 -1744 V. K. Trediakovsky 1703 -1769 M. V. Lomonosov 1711 -1765 A. P. Sumarokov 1717 -1777 D. I. Fonvizin 1744-1792 G. R. Derzhavin 1743 -1816 N. M. Karamzin 1766 -1826 A. N. Radishchev 1749 —

Theater German Johann Gregory is the creator of theater in Russia. Theater in Russia in the 18th century developed not only in Moscow, but also in St. Petersburg. An establishment with Russian actors opened at the court of Anna Ioannovna. The famous playwright Alexander Sumarokov wrote plays for him. Under Elizabeth Petrovna, the so-called imperial theaters appeared. These government agencies existed at the expense of the treasury. The director of the Imperial Theater on Vasilyevsky Island was Sumarokov. The first professional theater was opened in Yaroslavl by F. G. Volkov. The 18th century theater in Russia continued its development during the reign of Catherine II. Several professional troupes worked at her court. Italian opera singers occupied a special position. A Russian drama troupe also worked. During this period, the theater ceased to be a purely palace entertainment. Public entertainment establishments opened in the city, in which both Russian and foreign artists worked.

Theater. Creation. Ivan Dmitrievsky Theater of the 18th century in Russia knows the names of famous entrepreneurs: Titov, Belmonti, Medox. At this time, landowner troupes continue to exist in the provinces, where serf artists perform. Ivan Dmitrevsky was a wonderful actor. Later he became the main actor of the Imperial Theater on Vasilyevsky Island. To improve his skills, Catherine the Second sent Dmitrevsky abroad. In Paris, he studied the play of the famous tragedian Lequesne, and in London he watched performances with the participation of the great Garrick. Returning to St. Petersburg, Dmitrevsky opened a theater school. He later became the chief inspector of imperial entertainment establishments.

Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694 -1738). He began by studying the tribes that inhabited Russia in ancient times, especially the Varangians, but did not go further than that. Bayer left behind many works, of which two rather major works were written in Latin. Much more fruitful were the works of Gerard Friedrich Miller (1705 -1783), who lived in Russia under Empresses Anna, Elizabeth and Catherine II and was already so fluent in the Russian language that he wrote his works in Russian. Miller's main merit was collecting materials on Russian history. Among the academicians of the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov also occupied a prominent place in his works on Russian history, writing an educational book on Russian history and one volume of “Ancient Russian History” (1766). Story.

History His works on history were determined by polemics with academicians - the Germans. The latter separated Varangian Rus' from the Normans and attributed the origin of citizenship in Rus', which before the arrival of the Varangians was a wild country, to Norman influence; Lomonosov recognized the Varangians as Slavs and thus considered Russian culture to be original. Attempts to provide such an overview have emerged outside the academic environment. The first attempt belongs to V.N. Tatishchev (1686 -1750). In these 5 volumes, Tatishchev brought his history to the troubled era of the 17th century. The first popular book on Russian history belonged to the pen of Catherine II, but her work “Notes on Russian History” was much more important in scientific terms “Russian History” by Prince Shcherbatov (1733 -1790)

 

It might be useful to read:

• How to get on an excursion to Antarctica?;
• Czech Republic Troy Castle. Troja Castle in Prague. Ancient winery and museum;
• Böcklin and his “island of the dead” A cultural phenomenon of its time;
• Air tickets to Crimea Air tickets to Crimea will become cheaper;
• What you can and cannot take with you;
• Open left menu Heviz How to get from Budapest to Lake Heviz;
• Cable car in Nha Trang (Vinpearl) The longest cable car in the world Vietnam;
• Kamenets-Podolsk fortress - a historical monument of Ukraine Life outside the walls of the Kamenets-Podolsk fortress;