Name of aircraft parts. Aircraft design: basic elements. Aircraft design and construction. Aircraft classification and design features

This is for fun... Su-26

This is a short article about something that everyone seems to have seen, but not everyone imagines it.

What is an airplane anyway? This is an aircraft designed to move various cargo and people through the air. The definition is primitive, but true. All planes, no matter how romantic they may look, are created for work. And only sport aviation exists solely for flight. And what a flight :-)!

What helps an airplane fulfill its purpose? What makes an airplane an airplane? Let's name the main ones: fuselage, wing, empennage, take-off and landing device.

Design elements and controls

Separately, you can also highlight the power plant, that is, engines and propellers (if the aircraft is propeller-driven). The first four elements are usually combined into one unit, called a glider in aviation. It is worth noting that all of the above refers to the so-called classical layout scheme. After all, in fact, there are several of these schemes. In other schemes, some elements may not be present. We will definitely talk about this in other articles, but for now we will pay attention to the simplest and most common, classical scheme.

Fuselage. This is, so to speak, the basis of the aircraft. It, as it were, collects all the other elements of the aircraft’s structure into a single whole and is a container for aviation equipment (avionics) and payload... The payload is, of course, the actual cargo or passengers. In addition, fuel and weapons (for military aircraft) are usually located in the fuselage.

But this is for work... TU-154

Wing. Actually, the main flying organ :-). Consists of two parts, consoles, left and right. The main purpose is to create lift. Although in fairness I will say that on many modern aircraft the fuselage, which has a flattened lower surface (this is the same lift force), can help in this. On the wing there are controls for rotating the aircraft around its longitudinal axis, that is, roll control. These are ailerons, as well as organs with exotic name interceptors. There, on the wing, there is the so-called. These are flaps and slats. These elements improve the takeoff and landing characteristics of the aircraft (takeoff and landing length, takeoff and landing speeds). On many aircraft, fuel is also located in the wing, and on military aircraft, weapons are located.

Well, where is the fuselage?... Su-27

Tail. Not less important aircraft structural element. Consists of two parts: keel and stabilizer. The stabilizer, in turn, like the wing, consists of two consoles, left and right. The main purpose is flight stabilization, that is, they help the aircraft maintain the flight direction and altitude that were originally assigned to it, regardless of atmospheric influences. The keel stabilizes the direction, and the stabilizer stabilizes the height. Well, if the crew piloting the airliner wants to change the flight course, then for this there is a rudder on the fin, and to change the altitude, there is an elevator on the stabilizer.

I will definitely touch on my favorite topic about concepts. It is incorrect to say “tail” when referring to the keel, as can often be heard in non-aviation environments. Tail is generally a specific word and refers to the rear part of the fuselage along with the tail.

There is such a chassis... MIG-25

Another important part, an element of the aircraft’s design (although there are probably no unimportant ones :-)). This is a takeoff and landing device based on a simple landing gear. Used during takeoff, landing and taxiing. The functions are quite serious, because every plane, as you know, is simply obliged to “not only take off well, but also land extremely successfully” :-). The chassis is not just a wheel, but a whole complex of very serious equipment. The cleaning and release system alone is worth it... Here, by the way, the well-known ABS is present. It came to our cars from aviation.

And sometimes there is such a chassis... AN-225 "Mriya"

I also mentioned the power plant. The engines can be located inside the fuselage, or in special engine nacelles under the wing or on the fuselage. These are the main options, but there are also special cases. For example, an engine in the root of the wing, partially recessed into the fuselage. Sounds complicated, doesn't it? But it's interesting. In modern aviation, in general, a lot of intricate things have appeared. Where, for example, is the pure fuselage on a MIG-29 or Su-27 aircraft. But he is not there. Technically, it certainly stands out, but externally... Solid wing, engines and cockpit :-).

Well, that's probably all. I have listed the main ones. It turned out a little dry, but that’s okay. We'll talk about each of these elements later, and then I'll go wild :-). After all, the variety of layouts, designs and composition of equipment is very large. This and various general schemes and different layouts of the tail, wings, different designs and arrangements of the landing gear, engines, engine nacelles, etc. From all this diversity comes a variety of different aircraft, both unique in their capabilities and incredibly beautiful, and mass-produced, but still beautiful and attractive.

Bye:-). Until next time...

P.S. How did I get separated, huh?! Well, just like talking about a woman :-)…

Photos are clickable.

An airplane is an aircraft, without which today it is impossible to imagine the movement of people and cargo over long distances. The development of the design of a modern aircraft, as well as the creation of its individual elements, seems to be an important and responsible task. Only highly qualified engineers and specialized specialists are allowed to do this work, since a small error in calculations or a manufacturing defect will lead to fatal consequences for pilots and passengers. It is no secret that any aircraft has a fuselage, load-bearing wings, a power unit, a multi-directional control system and takeoff and landing devices.

Below is information about the features of the device components aircraft will be of interest to adults and children involved in the design development of aircraft models, as well as individual elements.

Airplane fuselage

The main part of the aircraft is the fuselage. The remaining structural elements are attached to it: wings, tail with fins, landing gear, and inside there is a control cabin, technical communications, passengers, cargo and the crew of the aircraft. The aircraft body is assembled from longitudinal and transverse load-bearing elements, followed by metal sheathing (in light-engine versions - plywood or plastic).

When designing an aircraft fuselage, the requirements are for the weight of the structure and maximum strength characteristics. This can be achieved using the following principles:

1. The aircraft fuselage body is made in a shape that reduces drag on air masses and promotes the generation of lift. The volume and dimensions of the aircraft must be proportionally weighed;
2. When designing, the most dense arrangement of the skin and strength elements of the body is provided to increase the useful volume of the fuselage;
3. They focus on the simplicity and reliability of fastening wing segments, takeoff and landing equipment, and power plants;
4. Places for securing cargo, accommodating passengers, and consumables must ensure reliable fastening and balance of the aircraft under various operating conditions;

1. The location of the crew must provide conditions for comfortable control of the aircraft, access to basic navigation and control instruments in extreme situations;
2. During the period of aircraft maintenance, it is possible to freely diagnose and repair failed components and assemblies.

The strength of the aircraft body must be able to withstand loads under various flight conditions, including:

• loads at the attachment points of the main elements (wings, tail, landing gear) during takeoff and landing modes;
• during the flight period, withstand the aerodynamic load, taking into account the inertial forces of the aircraft’s weight, the operation of units, and the functioning of equipment;
• pressure drops in hermetically confined parts of the aircraft, constantly arising during flight overloads.

The main types of aircraft body construction include flat, one- and two-story, wide and narrow fuselage. Beam-type fuselages have proven themselves and are used, including layout options called:

1. Sheathing - the design excludes longitudinally located segments, reinforcement occurs due to frames;
2. Spar - the element has significant dimensions, and the direct load falls on it;
3. Stringer ones - have an original shape, the area and cross-section are smaller than in the spar version.

Important! The uniform distribution of the load on all parts of the aircraft is carried out due to the internal frame of the fuselage, which is represented by the connection of various power elements along the entire length of the structure.

Wing design

A wing is one of the main structural elements of an aircraft, providing lift for flight and maneuvering in air masses. Wings are used to accommodate take-off and landing devices, a power unit, fuel and attachments. The operational and flight characteristics of an aircraft depend on the correct combination of weight, strength, structural rigidity, aerodynamics, and workmanship.

The main parts of the wing are the following list of elements:

1. A hull formed from spars, stringers, ribs, plating;
2. Slats and flaps ensuring smooth takeoff and landing;
3. Interceptors and ailerons - through them the aircraft is controlled in the airspace;
4. Brake flaps designed to reduce the speed of movement during landing;
5. Pylons required for mounting power units.

The structural-force diagram of the wing (the presence and location of parts under load) must provide stable resistance to the forces of torsion, shear and bending of the product. This includes longitudinal and transverse elements, as well as external cladding.

1. Transverse elements include ribs;
2. The longitudinal element is represented by spars, which can be in the form of a monolithic beam and represent a truss. They are located throughout the entire volume of the inner part of the wing. Participate in imparting rigidity to the structure when exposed to bending and lateral forces at all stages of flight;
3. Stringer is also classified as a longitudinal element. Its placement is along the wing along the entire span. Works as a compensator of axial stress for wing bending loads;
4. Ribs are an element of transverse placement. The structure consists of trusses and thin beams. Gives profile to the wing. Provides surface rigidity while distributing a uniform load during the creation of a flight air cushion, as well as attaching the power unit;
5. The skin shapes the wing, providing maximum aerodynamic lift. Together with other structural elements, it increases the rigidity of the wing and compensates for external loads.

The classification of aircraft wings is carried out depending on design features and the degree of operation of the outer cladding, including:

1. Spar type. They are characterized by a slight thickness of the skin, forming a closed contour with the surface of the side members.
2. Monoblock type. The main external load is distributed over the surface of the thick skin, secured by a massive set of stringers. The cladding can be monolithic or consist of several layers.

Important! The joining of wing parts and their subsequent fastening must ensure the transmission and distribution of bending and torque moments arising under various operating conditions.

Aircraft engines

Thanks to the constant improvement of aviation power units, the development of modern aircraft construction continues. The first flights could not be long and were carried out exclusively with one pilot precisely because there were no powerful engines capable of developing the necessary traction force. Over the entire past period, aviation used the following types of aircraft engines:

1. Steam. The principle of operation was to convert steam energy into forward motion, transmitted to the aircraft propeller. Due to its low efficiency, it was used for a short time on the first aircraft models;
2. Piston engines are standard engines with internal combustion of fuel and transmission of torque to propellers. The availability of manufacturing from modern materials allows their use to this day on certain aircraft models. The efficiency is no more than 55.0%, but high reliability and ease of maintenance make the engine attractive;

1. Reactive. The operating principle is based on converting the energy of intense combustion of aviation fuel into the thrust necessary for flight. Today, this type of engine is most in demand in aircraft construction;
2. Gas turbine. They work on the principle of boundary heating and compression of fuel combustion gas aimed at rotating a turbine unit. They are widely used in military aviation. Used in aircraft such as Su-27, MiG-29, F-22, F-35;
3. Turboprop. One of the options for gas turbine engines. But the energy obtained during operation is converted into drive energy for the aircraft propeller. A small part of it is used to form a thrust jet. Mainly used in civil aviation;
4. Turbofan. Characterized by high efficiency. The technology used for injection of additional air for complete combustion of fuel ensures maximum operating efficiency and high environmental safety. Such engines have found their application in the creation of large airliners.

Important! The list of engines developed by aircraft designers is not limited to the above list. IN different time Attempts have been made repeatedly to create various variations of power units. In the last century, work was even carried out on the construction of nuclear engines for the benefit of aviation. Prototypes were tested in the USSR (TU-95, AN-22) and the USA (Convair NB-36H), but were withdrawn from testing due to the high environmental hazard in aviation accidents.

Controls and signaling

The complex of on-board equipment, command and actuator devices of the aircraft are called controls. Commands are given from the pilot cabin and are carried out by elements of the wing plane and tail feathers. On different types Aircraft use different types of control systems: manual, semi-automatic and fully automated.

The controls, regardless of the type of control system, are divided as follows:

1. Basic control, which includes actions responsible for adjusting flight conditions, restoring the longitudinal balance of the aircraft in predetermined parameters, these include:

• levers directly controlled by the pilot (wheel, elevator, horizon, command panels);
• communications for connecting control levers with elements of actuators;
• direct executing devices (ailerons, stabilizers, spoiler systems, flaps, slats).

1. Additional control used during takeoff or landing modes.

When using manual or semi-automatic control of an aircraft, the pilot can be considered an integral part of the system. Only he can collect and analyze information about the aircraft’s position, load indicators, compliance of the flight direction with planned data, and make decisions appropriate to the situation.

To obtain objective information about the flight situation and the state of the aircraft components, the pilot uses groups of instruments, let’s name the main ones:

1. Aerobatic and used for navigation purposes. Determine coordinates, horizontal and vertical position, speed, linear deviations. They control the angle of attack in relation to the oncoming air flow, the operation of gyroscopic devices and many equally significant flight parameters. On modern models aircraft are combined into a single flight and navigation system;
2. To control the operation of the power unit. They provide the pilot with information about the temperature and pressure of oil and aviation fuel, the flow rate of the working mixture, the number of revolutions of the crankshafts, the vibration indicator (tachometers, sensors, thermometers, etc.);
3. To monitor the functioning of additional equipment and aircraft systems. They include a set of measuring instruments, the elements of which are located in almost all structural parts of the aircraft (pressure gauges, air consumption indicators, pressure drop in pressurized closed cabins, flap positions, stabilizing devices, etc.);
4. To assess the state of the surrounding atmosphere. The main measured parameters are outside air temperature, condition atmospheric pressure, humidity, speed indicators of movement of air masses. Special barometers and other adapted measuring instruments are used.

Important! The measuring instruments used to monitor the condition of the machine and the external environment are specially designed and adapted for difficult operating conditions.

Takeoff and landing systems 2280

Takeoff and landing are considered critical periods during aircraft operation. During this period, maximum loads occur on the entire structure. Guarantee acceptable acceleration for lifting into the sky and a soft touch to the surface runway Only reliably designed landing gear can do this. In flight, they serve as an additional element to stiffen the wings.

The design of the most common chassis models is represented by the following elements:

• folding strut, compensating lot loads;
• shock absorber (group), ensures smooth operation of the aircraft when moving along the runway, compensates for shocks during contact with the ground, can be installed in conjunction with stabilizer dampers;
• braces, which act as reinforcers of structural rigidity, can be called rods, are located diagonally with respect to the rack;
• traverses attached to the fuselage structure and landing gear wings;
• orientation mechanism - to control the direction of movement on the lane;
• locking systems that ensure the rack is secured in the required position;
• cylinders designed to extend and retract the landing gear.

How many wheels does an airplane have? The number of wheels is determined depending on the model, weight and purpose of the aircraft. The most common is the placement of two main racks with two wheels. Heavier models are three-post (located under the bow and wings), four-post - two main and two additional support ones.

Video

The described design of the aircraft gives only a general idea of ​​the main structural components and allows us to determine the degree of importance of each element during the operation of the aircraft. Further study requires in-depth engineering training, special knowledge of aerodynamics, strength of materials, hydraulics and electrical equipment. At aircraft manufacturing enterprises, these issues are dealt with by people who have undergone training and special training. You can independently study all the stages of creating an aircraft, but to do this you should be patient and be ready to gain new knowledge.

They can be completely confident in their safety. Every detail, every system - everything is checked and tested several times. Spare parts for them are produced in different countries, and then assembled at one factory.

Device passenger plane is a glider. It consists of a fuselage and a tail wing. The latter is equipped with engines and a chassis. All modern airliners are additionally equipped with avionics. This is what a collection is called electronic systems who control the operation of the aircraft.

Any aircraft (helicopter, passenger airliner) by its design is a glider that consists of several parts.

Here's what the parts of the plane are called:

• fuselage;
• wings;
• tail unit;
• chassis;
• engines;
• avionics.

Airplane structure.

This is the load-bearing part of the aircraft. Its main purpose is the formation of aerodynamic forces, and its secondary purpose is installation. It serves as the base on which all other parts are installed.

Fuselage

If we talk about parts of the aircraft and their names, then the fuselage is one of its most important components. The name itself comes from the French word “fuseau”, which translates as “spindle”.

The airframe can be called the “skeleton” of the aircraft, and the fuselage is its “body”. It is what connects the wings, tail and chassis. The ship's crew and all equipment are located here.

It consists from longitudinal and transverse elements and cladding.

Wings

How does an airplane wing work? It is assembled from several parts: left or right half-plane (console) and center section. The consoles include the overflow of the wing and the tip. The latter may be different for individual types of passenger airliners. Eat winglets and sharklets.

Airplane wing.

The principle of its operation is very simple - the console separates the two air streams. Above is the area of ​​low pressure, and below is the area of ​​high pressure. Due to this difference, the wing allows you to fly.

Smaller consoles are installed on the wing to improve their performance. These are ailerons, flaps, slats, etc.. Inside the wings are located fuel tanks.

Affects the performance of the wing its geometric design - area, span, angle, sweep direction.

Tail

It is located in the rear or forward part of the fuselage. This is the name given to a whole set of aerodynamic surfaces that help a passenger airliner stay reliably in the air. They are separated into horizontal and vertical.

Vertical include keel or two keels. It provides directional stability of the aircraft along the axis of movement. To horizontal - stabilizer. It is responsible for the longitudinal stability of the aircraft.

Chassis

These are the same devices that help the plane taxi along the runway. These are several racks that are equipped with wheels.

The weight of a passenger airliner directly affects on the chassis configuration. The most commonly used is the following: one front post and two main ones. This is exactly how the landing gear is located. U aircraft Boeing 747 family - two more racks.

Wheeled carts include a different number of pairs of wheels. So the Airbus A320 has one pair, and the An-225 has seven.

During flight, the landing gear is retracted into the compartment. When the plane takes off or lands. They turn due to drive to the front landing gear or differential operation of the engines.

Engines

When talking about how an airplane works and how it flies, we must not forget about such an important part of the airplane as the engines. They work based on the principle of jet propulsion. They can be turbojet or turboprop.

They are attached to the wing of the aircraft or its fuselage. In the latter case, it is placed in a special gondola and used to attach the pylon. Through it, the fuel pipe and drives are connected to the engines.

The plane usually has two engines.

The number of engines varies depending on the aircraft model. More details have been written about engines.

Avionics

These are all the systems that ensure the smooth operation of the aircraft. in any weather conditions and for most technical faults.

This includes the autopilot, anti-icing system, on-board power supply system, etc.

Classification by design characteristics

Depending on the number of wings, they are distinguished monoplane (one wing), biplane (two wings) and sesquiplane (one wing shorter than the other).

In turn, monoplanes divide for low-wing, mid-wing and high-wing. This classification is based on the location of the wings near the fuselage.

If we talk about plumage, we can distinguish the classic scheme (the plumage is behind the wings), the “duck” type (the plumage is in front of the wing) and the “tailless” type (the plumage is on the wing).

According to the type of landing gear, aircraft are divided into land, seaplanes and amphibians (those seaplanes on which wheeled landing gear was installed).

Eat different types aircraft and by fuselage type. Distinguish narrow-body and wide-body aircraft. The latter are mainly double-decker passenger liners. There are passenger seats at the top, and luggage compartments at the bottom.

This is what the classification of aircraft by design features is like.

Airplane

Airplane

a heavier-than-air aircraft with a wing on which aerodynamic lift is generated during movement, and a power plant that creates thrust for flight in the atmosphere. The main parts of the aircraft: wing (one or two), empennage (all this together is called the airframe), avionics; military aircraft also have aviation weapons.

The wing is the main part of the aircraft. Airplanes with one wing are called monoplanes, with two - biplanes. The middle part of the wing, attached to the fuselage or integral with it, is called the center section; The side detachable parts of the wing - consoles - are attached to the center section. On the wing are located (ailerons, elevons, spoilers) and devices with which the wings are adjusted (flaps, slats, etc.). The wing houses fuel tanks, various units (for example, landing gear), communications, etc. Engines are installed on the wing or under it (on pylons). Up to mid. 20th century the planes had trapezoidal wings (in plan view). With the advent of jet engines, the shape of the wing changed and became swept. in combination with a gas turbine jet engine allows you to achieve flight speeds twice and three times higher.

In the 1960-70s. airplanes were created with a wing that varied in flight: during takeoff and landing, as well as when flying at subsonic speeds, the characteristics of a straight (traditional) wing were better; in flight at supersonic speed it turns, acquiring a sweep shape, which significantly improves its aerodynamics (MiG-23, USSR; F-111, USA). The fuselage is the body of the aircraft, carrying the wings, tail and landing gear. It houses the crew cabin and passenger compartment, cargo compartments, and equipment. Sometimes the fuselage is replaced with tail booms or combined with the wing. Until the 1930s Most aircraft had open cockpits. With the increase in flight speed and altitude, the cabins began to be covered with a streamlined “canopy”. Flights at high altitudes required the creation of sealed cabins that provided them with the pressure and temperature necessary for normal human life. The streamlined cigar-shaped fuselage provides it with minimal resistance to air flow in flight. U the fuselage is made with a strongly pointed nose. The cross-sectional shape of the fuselage of modern aircraft can be round, oval, in the form of the intersection of two circles, close to rectangular, etc. Created in the 1965-70s. so-called wide-body aircraft with a fuselage with a diameter of 5.5–6.5 m made it possible to significantly increase the carrying capacity of aircraft (IL-86, USSR; Boeing-747, USA). The fuselage structure consists of load-bearing elements (spars, stringers, frames) and skin. Power elements are made from lightweight and durable structural materials (aluminum and titanium alloys, composite materials). at the dawn of aviation it was made of linen, then from plywood and from cone. 1920 – metal (aluminum and its alloys). The vast majority of aircraft are made using a single-fuselage design, very rarely using a double-boom design, and only a few experimental aircraft are fuselageless, the so-called. (XB-35, USA).

The tail provides stability and controllability of the aircraft in longitudinal and lateral movement. For most aircraft, the empennage is located on the rear of the fuselage and consists of a stabilizer and elevator (horizontal tail), fin and rudder (vertical tail). supersonic aircraft may not have elevators or rudder due to their low efficiency at high speeds. Their functions are performed by steerable (all-rotating) and stabilizer. The design of the tail is similar to that of the wing and in most cases follows its shape. The most common type is a single-fin tail, but aircraft with spaced vertical tails are being created (Su-27, MiG-31). There are known cases of creating a V-shaped tail, combining the functions of a keel and stabilizer (Bonanza-35, USA). Many supersonic aircraft, especially military ones, do not have stabilizers (Mirage-2000, France; Vulcan, UK; Tu-144).

The landing gear is used to move the aircraft around the airfield during taxiing and along the runway during takeoff and landing. The most common wheeled chassis. In winter, skis can be installed on light aircraft. U seaplanes Instead of wheels, floats-boats are attached to the chassis. During flight, the wheeled landing gear is retracted into the wing or fuselage to reduce airflow. Sports, training and other light aircraft are often built with fixed landing gear, which are simpler and lighter than retractable ones. Modern jet planes have a landing gear with a front support under the nose of the fuselage and two supports in the area of ​​​​the center of gravity of the aircraft under the fuselage or wing. This tricycle landing gear ensures safer and more stable movement of the aircraft at higher speeds during take-off and landing. Heavy passenger aircraft are equipped with multi-support and multi-wheel landing gear to reduce loads and pressure on the aircraft. All landing gear is equipped with liquid-gas or liquid shock absorbers to soften the shocks that occur when the aircraft lands and moves along the airfield. For taxiing the aircraft, the front support has a rotating one. The movement of the aircraft on the ground is controlled by separate braking of the wheels of the main supports.

The power plant of the aircraft includes aircraft engines (from 1 to 4), propellers, air intakes, jet nozzles, fuel supply systems, lubrication, control, etc. Almost to the end. 1940s the main type of engine was piston engine internal combustion, driving rotation. From the end 1940s gas turbine engines began to be used on military and civil aviation aircraft jet engines– turbojet and turbofan. The engines are installed in the forward part of the fuselage (mainly on propeller-driven aircraft), built into the wing, suspended on pylons under the wing, installed above the wing (mainly in seaplanes), and placed on the rear part of the fuselage. On heavy passenger aircraft, preference is given to rear-mounted engines, since this reduces noise in the passenger cabin.

1 - ; 2 – cockpit; 3 – toilets; 4.18 – wardrobe; 5.14 – cargo; 6 – luggage; 7 – first passenger cabin with 66 seats; 8 – engine; 9 - ; 10 – vertical wing tip; 11 – external; 12 – inner flap; 13 – second passenger cabin with 234 seats; 15 – cargo on pallets in nets; 16 – emergency exit; 17 – loads in nets; 19 – keel; 20 – rudder; 21 – elevator; 22 – ; 23 – stabilizer; 24 – fuselage; 25 – ; 26 – main landing gear; 27 – ; 28 – fuel compartments; 29 – wings; 30 – buffet with elevator to the lower deck; 31 – cargo floor with spherical supports; 32 – entrance door; 33 – nose landing gear

The aircraft equipment ensures the aircraft, flight safety, and the creation of conditions necessary for the life of crew members and passengers. Aircraft navigation is provided by flight navigation, radio and radar equipment. To increase flight safety, fire fighting equipment, emergency rescue and external equipment, anti-icing and other systems are designed. Life support systems include air conditioning and cabin pressurization units, etc. The use of microprocessor technology in aircraft control systems has made it possible to reduce the number of crews of passenger and transport aircraft to 2–3 people. The aircraft is controlled in flight using elevators and rudder (on the trailing edges of the stabilizers and fin) and ailerons deflected in opposite directions. The pilots control the rudders and ailerons from the cockpit. During scheduled flights along the highway, control of the aircraft is transferred to the autopilot, which not only maintains the flight direction, but also controls the operation of the engines and maintains the specified flight mode.

Aircraft armament military aviation determined by their purpose and what tasks they solve in combat operations. The military is armed with surface-to-air cruise missiles and air-to-air missiles, aircraft cannons and machine guns, aircraft bombs, aircraft sea mines and torpedoes.

Encyclopedia "Technology". - M.: Rosman. 2006 .

Airplane

(obsolete -) - heavier than air for flights in the atmosphere with the help of a power plant that creates thrust and a fixed wing, on which aerodynamic lift is generated when moving in the air. The immobility of the wing, which distinguishes the wing from rotary-wing aircraft that have a “rotating wing” (main rotor), and from an aircraft with flapping wings (flyers), is to some extent conditional, since in a number of designs the wing can change in flight installation angle, etc. The concept of S., which originated at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. (J. Keighley) and which assumed the flight of an aircraft using a propulsion unit (propeller) and a lifting surface (wing) separated by function, in the course of the development of aircraft technology turned out to be the most successful in its entirety flight characteristics and operational qualities, and power is most widespread among aircraft with various principles for creating lift and constructive methods for their implementation ( cm. also Aviation).
Aircraft classification.
Based on their purpose, a distinction is made between civilian and military vehicles. Civil vehicles include passenger, cargo, cargo-passenger, administrative, sports, agricultural, and other vehicles for the national economy. Passenger aircraft are divided into mainline aircraft and aircraft of local airlines. Military aircraft include fighters (air combat aircraft, fighter-bombers, fighter-interceptors, multi-role aircraft), attack aircraft, bombers (front-line, long-range, intercontinental), reconnaissance aircraft (tactical, operational, strategic), military transport aircraft (light, medium, heavy). , anti-submarine, combat support (radar patrol and guidance, jammers, air points control, in-flight refueling, etc.). Military and civil aviation includes educational, training, ambulance, patrol, and search and rescue aircraft. S. According to the type of propulsion, S. is classified as screw or jet. According to the type of engine, a propeller is often called a piston, turboprop, or jet (in particular, rocket), and according to the number of engines, for example, two-, three-, or four-engine. Depending on the maximum flight speed, aircraft are divided into subsonic (flight M(() 1) and hypersonic (M(() > > 1; often taken M(() > > 4-5). Based on basing conditions, land aircraft are distinguished based, ship-based aircraft, seaplanes (flying boats or floats) and amphibious aircraft, and according to the requirements for the length of the runway - vertical, short and conventional take-off and landing aircraft. Various maneuvering abilities (maximum operational load value). distinguishes maneuverable, limited maneuverable, and non-maneuverable aircraft. According to the stage of development, aircraft are classified as experimental, experimental, and production aircraft, and in contrast to the original model, aircraft with a crew are called manned; for some types, aircraft without a crew are called unmanned. S. (fighters, attack aircraft, training aircraft) often indicate the number of crew members (single or double).
Many airfoil names are determined by their design and aerodynamic design. Based on the number of wings, monoplanes, biplanes (including sesquiplanes), triplanes and polyplanes are distinguished, and monoplanes, depending on the location of the wing relative to the fuselage, can be low-wing, mid-wing and high-wing. A monoplane without external wing reinforcements (struts) is called a cantilever, and with a wing mounted on struts above the fuselage it is called a monoplane. An aircraft with a wing sweep that can be changed in flight is often called an aircraft of variable geometry; depending on the location of the tail, there are aircraft of the normal design (with a tail), aircraft of the "" type (horizontal, no tail) and aircraft of the "" type (with horizontal tail located in front of the wing). According to the type of fuselage, the aircraft can be single-fuselage or double-boom, and the aircraft without a fuselage is called a “flying wing.” S. with a fuselage diameter of more than 5.5-6 m are called wide-body. Vertical take-off and landing aircraft have their own classification (with rotary propellers, rotary wings, lifting or lift-propulsion engines, etc.). Some classification concepts, such as “light”, “heavy”, “long-range”, etc., are arbitrary and do not always have strictly defined boundaries for aircraft of various types (fighters, bombers, transport aircraft). ) may correspond to significantly different numerical values ​​of take-off mass and flight range.
Aerodynamics of the aircraft.
The lifting force that supports the wing in the air is formed as a result of the asymmetric air flow around the wing, which occurs when the wing profile is asymmetrically shaped, oriented at a certain positive angle of attack to the flow, or under the influence of both of these factors. In these cases, the flow velocity on the upper surface of the wing is greater, and the pressure (in accordance with Bernoulli's equation) is less than on the lower surface; As a result, a pressure difference is created under the wing and above the wing and a lifting force arises. Theoretical approaches to determining the lift force of a wing profile (for an ideal incompressible fluid) are reflected in the well-known Zhukovsky theorem. The total aerodynamic force RA (called the aerodynamic force of a glider) acting on the sky when an air flow flows around it can be represented in the speed coordinate system as two components - the aerodynamic lift force Ya and the drag force Xa (in the general case, the presence of a lateral force is also possible Za). The force Ya is determined mainly by the lifting forces of the wing and horizon, and the tail, and the force Xa, which is oppositely directed in relation to the flight speed, owes its origin to the friction of air on the surface of the aircraft (friction resistance), the pressure difference acting on the frontal and rear parts of the aircraft elements ( pressure resistance, cm. Profile drag, Bottom drag), and the flow bevel behind the wing associated with the formation of lift (inductive drag); in addition, at high flight speeds (near- and supersonic), , caused by the formation of shock waves ( cm. Aerodynamic drag). The aerodynamic force of a glider S. and its components are proportional to the velocity pressure
q = V2/2
((() - air density, V - flight speed) and some characteristic area, which is usually taken as S:
Ya = cyaqS,
Xa = cxaqS,
Moreover, the proportionality coefficient (lift coefficient cya and drag coefficient cxa) depend mainly on the geometric shapes of the aircraft’s parts, its orientation in the flow (angle of attack), Reynolds number, and at high speeds also on the M(()) number. Aerodynamic perfection Aircraft is characterized by the ratio of the lift force to the total drag force, called aerodynamic quality:
K = Ya/Xa = cya/cxa
In steady (V = const) horizontal flight, the weight of the aircraft G is balanced by the lift force (Ya = G), and the thrust P of the power plant must compensate for the drag (P = Xa). From the resulting relation G = KP it follows, for example, that the implementation in the construction of S. is more high value K would allow, at a fixed value of G, to reduce the required thrust for the same flight speed and, therefore, and in some other cases (for example, with the same value of P) to increase the load capacity or by C. In the early period (before the beginning of the 20s. ) S. had rough aerodynamic shapes and their aerodynamic quality values ​​were in the range K = 4-7. In the 1930s, which had straight wings and a flight speed of 300-350 km/h, values ​​of K = 13-15 were obtained. This was achieved mainly through the use of a cantilever monoplane design, improved wing profiles, streamlined fuselages, closed cockpits, rigid smooth skin (instead of fabric or corrugated metal), retracting the landing gear, cowling engines, etc. With the subsequent creation of higher-speed S. the possibilities for improving aerodynamic efficiency have become more limited. Nevertheless, on passenger S. 80s. with high subsonic flight speeds and swept wings, the maximum values ​​of aerodynamic quality were K = 15-18. On supersonic aircraft, to reduce wave drag, wings with a thin profile, high sweep, or other planform shapes with low aspect ratio are used. However, S. with such wings on subsonic speeds flight is less than that of S. subsonic schemes.
Aircraft design.
It must provide high aerodynamic characteristics, have the necessary strength, rigidity, survivability, endurance (fatigue resistance), be technologically advanced in production and maintenance, and have a minimum weight (this is one of the main criteria for aircraft perfection). In general, the aircraft consists of the following main parts: wing, fuselage, empennage, landing gear (all of this together is called the airframe), power plant, and on-board equipment; military S. have also.
Wing is the main load-bearing surface of the structure and also ensures its lateral stability. On the wing there are means of its mechanization (flaps, slats, etc.), controls (ailerons, elevons, spoilers), and in some wing configurations the landing gear supports are also fixed and engines are installed. consists of a frame with a longitudinal (spars, stringers) and transverse (ribs) strength set and sheathing. The internal volume of the wing is used to accommodate fuel, various units, communications, etc. The most important moments in the development of aircraft related to the design of the wing were completed in the 30s. the transition from the biplane design to the cantilever monoplane and which began in the late 40s and early 50s. transition from a straight wing to a swept wing. On heavy aircraft with a long flight range, for which it is important to increase the aerodynamic quality, the monoplane design made it possible to increase for this purpose, and for more power-equipped aircraft (fighters), to use a decrease in wing area and drag to increase flight speed. The creation of cantilever monoplanes was made possible thanks to advances in structural mechanics and wing profiling, as well as the use of high-strength materials. The use of a swept wing made it possible to realize the potential for further increasing flight speed when using gas turbine engines. When a certain flight speed (critical number M(())) is reached, local supersonic zones with shock waves are formed on the wing, which leads to the appearance of wave drag. For a swept wing, due to the sliding principle, the occurrence of such unfavorable phenomena is pushed to the region of higher flight speeds (critical number M(() is greater than that of a straight wing); and in supersonic flow, the intensity of the resulting shock waves () of a subsonic S. wing is usually 20-35 (°), and for a supersonic S. it reaches 40-60 (°). .
In the 50-80s. created big number Aircraft of various types with turboprop engines and turbojet engines, differing in speed and flight profile, maneuverability and other properties. Accordingly, wings have been used on them, varying in plan form, aspect ratio, relative thickness, structural-power design, etc. Along with the swept wing, the delta wing has become widespread, combining the properties of high sweep, favorable for high supersonic flight speeds ( () 55-70°), low elongation and small relative profile thickness. In connection with the need to ensure high aerodynamic characteristics for some types of airplanes in a wide range of flight speeds, aircraft were created with a wing that varied in flight (()) 15-70°), which realized the advantages of a straight wing with a relatively large aspect ratio (takeoff and landing modes and at subsonic speeds) and high-sweep wings (flight at supersonic speeds). A variation of this scheme is all-rotary. In maneuverable aircraft, a wing with variable sweep along the leading edge has been used, which includes a trapezoidal part with moderate sweep and root flares of a highly swept wing, which improve the load-bearing properties of the wing at high angles of attack. The wing design with a forward-swept wing (FSW) has not become widespread due to the aeroelastic instability (divergence) of the wing at elevated flight speeds. The advent of composite materials opened up the possibility of eliminating this drawback by providing the necessary rigidity of the wing without noticeably weighing the structure, and the COS, which has favorable aerodynamic characteristics at high angles of attack, became available in the late 70s and 80s. the object of extensive theoretical and experimental research. S. of different speed ranges differ in wing elongation
(() = 12/S (l - wing span).
To increase aerodynamic quality, increase (), to reduce wave drag - decrease. If the aspect ratio of subsonic swept wings is usually (-) = 7-8 for passenger and transport aircraft and () = 4-4.5 for fighters, then for supersonic fighters () = 2-3.5. To ensure the necessary lateral stability, the wing consoles are installed (when viewed from the front) at a certain angle to horizontal plane(the so-called transverse V wing). The improvement in the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing is largely due to the improvement of its profile. At various stages of aircraft development, the choice of wing profile was determined by aerodynamic or design requirements and the level of scientific knowledge. A flat wing was found in early aircraft designs, but all the first aircraft to fly already had profiled wings. To obtain greater lifting force, thin curved wings were first used (S. of the early period), and later - wings with a thick profile (cantilever monoplanes of the 20s). As flight speeds increased, less curved and thinner profiles were used. At the end of the 30s. Work was carried out on the so-called laminar profiles of low resistance, but they were not widely used, since ensuring laminar flow placed high demands on the quality of finish and cleanliness of the wing surface. In the 70s For subsonic aircraft, supercritical profiles have been developed that make it possible to increase the value of the critical number M(()). On aircraft with high supersonic flight speeds, to reduce wave drag, wings with a small relative profile thickness ((c) = 2-6%) and a sharp leading edge are used. edge. The geometric parameters of the wing are variable along its span: it has a narrowing, the values ​​of c decrease towards the ends of the wing, aerodynamic and geometric are used, etc.
An important characteristic of S. is equal to
G/S = cyyV2/2.
At all stages of aircraft development, it increased - on high-speed aircraft due to a decrease in wing area in order to reduce drag and increase flight speed, and on heavy aircraft due to an accelerated increase in the mass of the aircraft. With an increase in the specific load on the wing, the take-off speed increases accordingly and landing, the required length of the runway increases, and it also becomes more difficult to pilot the aircraft during landing. Reduced lift-off speed and landing speed is ensured by the mechanization of the wing, which allows, when the flaps and flaps are deflected, to increase the maximum values ​​of the coefficient cy, and for some structures, also the area of ​​the load-bearing surface. Wing mechanization devices began to be developed in the 20s, and became widespread in the 30s. At first, simple flaps were used, later retractable and slotted flaps (including two- and three-slotted ones) appeared. Some types of wing mechanization (slats, etc.) are also used in flight, during maneuvering. The idea of ​​matching the shape of the wing profile with the flight mode is the basis of the adaptive wing. In the 50s. To increase the lift of the wing at low flight speeds, it began to be used, in particular, to blow off the boundary layer by blowing air bleed from the engine onto the upper surfaces of the wing tips and flaps. In the 70s Short take-off and landing aircraft (STOL) began to be created with the so-called energy mechanization of the wing, based on the use of engine energy to increase lift by blowing the wing or flaps with the jet stream of the engines.
Fuselage serves to combine into one whole the various parts of the aircraft (wings, empennage, etc.), to accommodate the crew cabin, units and systems of on-board equipment, and also, depending on the type and design of the aircraft, passenger compartments and cargo compartments, engines , weapons and landing gear compartments, fuel tanks, etc. In the early stages of aircraft development, its wing was connected to the tail using an open truss or a box-shaped truss fuselage covered with fabric or rigid skin. Truss fuselages were replaced by so-called beam fuselages with various combinations of strength sets - longitudinal (spars, stringers) and transverse (frames) and “working” skin. This design made it possible to give the fuselage various well-streamlined shapes. For a long time, an open or protected by a front visor cockpit prevailed, and on heavy aircraft they were fitted into the contours of the fuselage. As flight speed increased, the cabins of light aircraft began to be covered with a streamlined canopy. Flights at high altitudes required the creation of sealed cabins (on combat and passenger airplanes) with the provision of air parameters in them necessary for normal human life. On modern aircraft, various forms of cross-section of the fuselage have become widespread - round, oval, in the form of the intersection of two circles, etc. On a fuselage with a cross-section close to rectangular and with a specially profiled bottom, it is possible to obtain some additional lifting force (load-bearing fuselage). . The area of ​​the fuselage section of a light aircraft is determined by the dimensions of the crew cabin or the dimensions of the engines (when installed in the fuselage), and on heavy aircraft - by the dimensions of the passenger or cargo cabin, weapons compartments, etc. The creation in the second half of the 60s. Wide-body aircraft with a diameter of about 6 m made it possible to significantly increase payload and passenger capacity. The length of the fuselage is determined not only by the conditions for placing the transported load, fuel, and equipment, but also by the requirements related to the stability and controllability of the aircraft (ensuring the required position of the center of gravity and the distance from it to the tail). To reduce wave drag, the fuselages of supersonic aircraft have a large aspect ratio, a pointed nose, and sometimes in the area of ​​interface with the wing the fuselage is “tucked in” (when viewed from above) in accordance with the so-called area rule. Most aircraft are made according to a single-fuselage design. Double-boom aircraft were built relatively rarely, and even less frequently were fuselage aircraft.
Plumage provides longitudinal and directional stability, balancing and controllability of the aircraft. Most of the aircraft created, especially subsonic ones, had a normal design, that is, with a tail unit, usually consisting of fixed and deflectable (control) surfaces: the stabilizer and elevator form (GO), and keel and rudder - (VO). According to the structural-power scheme, the tail is similar to the wing, and at high speed, the VO and GO, like the wing, are swept-shaped. On heavy subsonic airplanes, to facilitate balancing, the stabilizer is sometimes made adjustable, that is, with a variable installation angle in flight. At supersonic flight speeds, the effectiveness of the rudders decreases; therefore, on supersonic aircraft, the stabilizer and fin can be controlled, including all-moving ones (forward and horizontal without rudders). The most common type is single-fin tail, but aircraft with spaced-out wings are also created. The design of a V-shaped tail unit that performs the functions of GO and VO is known. A fairly large number of engines, especially supersonic ones, are made according to the “tailless” design (there is no GO). A small number of aircraft have been built according to the canard design (with a front cylinder), but it continues to attract attention, in particular, due to the advantage of using the positive lift force created by the front cylinder to balance the car.
Chassis serves to move the skid around the airfield (during taxiing, takeoff, and landing), as well as to soften shocks that occur during landing and movement of the skid. The most common type is a wheeled chassis, but on light skids in winter conditions a ski chassis is sometimes used. Attempts were made to create a tracked chassis, which turned out to be too heavy. The necessary seaworthiness and stability on the water of seaplanes are provided by floats or a fuselage boat. Chassis resistance can reach 40% of the frontal drag, so in the early 40s. To increase flight speed, retractable landing gear began to be widely used. Depending on the design of the fuselage, the landing gear is retracted into the wing, fuselage, and engine nacelles. Low-speed aircraft are sometimes built with fixed landing gear, which is lighter and simpler in design. To ensure a stable position of the vehicle on the ground, its chassis includes at least three supports. Previously, a tricycle landing gear with a low tail support was mainly used, but jet aircraft are equipped with a landing gear with a front landing gear, which ensures a safer landing at high speeds and stable movement of the aircraft during the takeoff and run. In addition, the horizontal position of the fuselage (with the front support) helps to reduce the impact of the engine jet stream on the airfield surface. On a number of aircraft, it is used with two main supports along the fuselage and auxiliary supports at the ends of the wing. One of the advantages of this design is the absence of nacelles on the wing for retracting the landing gear, which worsen the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing. On the M-4 heavy bomber, the front strut of the bicycle landing gear was “heavy” during takeoff, which increased the speed and shortened the takeoff run. The landing gear support usually includes a strut, liquid-gas or liquid, struts, retraction mechanisms and wheels. The wheels of the main supports, and sometimes the front supports, are equipped with brakes, which are used to reduce the length of the run after landing, as well as to hold the aircraft in place when the engines are running (before the takeoff roll, when testing the engines, etc.). To ensure steering, the front support has an orienting wheel. Control of the vehicle's movement on the ground at low speeds is ensured by separate braking of the wheels of the main supports, as well as by the creation of asymmetrical engine thrust. When this method is ineffective or impossible (bicycle chassis, single-engine layout in combination with a small chassis track, etc.), the front support is controlled. Heavy passenger and transport aircraft are equipped with multi-legged and multi-wheeled chassis to reduce the loads and pressures on the airfield pavement. The search for new, in particular non-contact, take-off and landing devices (for example, hovercraft landing gear) is aimed at expanding the capabilities of landing aircraft.
Aircraft power plant.
Creates the necessary thrust over the entire range of operating conditions and turns on the engines ( cm. Aviation engine), propellers, air intakes, jet nozzles, fuel supply systems, lubrication, control and regulation, etc. Almost until the end of the 40s. The main type of engine for S. was an air- or liquid-cooled piston engine. Important stages in the development of power plants with piston engines are the creation of variable pitch propellers (effective in a wide range of flight conditions); increase in liter power due to an increase in the compression ratio, which became possible after a significant increase in the anti-knock properties of aviation gasoline; providing the required engine power at altitude by supercharging them using special superchargers. To reduce the aerodynamic drag of the power plant, the aim was to close the star-shaped air-cooled piston engines with annular profiling hoods, as well as to remove the radiators of the liquid-cooled piston engines into the wing or fuselage tunnels. The power of the aircraft piston engine was increased to 3160 kW, and the flight speed of aircraft with a piston engine was increased to 700-750 km/h. However, further growth in speed was hampered by a sharp increase in the aerodynamic drag of the aircraft and a decrease in the efficiency of the propeller due to the increasing influence of air compressibility and the associated increase in the required engine power, while the possibilities of reducing its weight and size had already been exhausted. This circumstance stimulated the development and introduction of lighter and more powerful gas turbine engines (turbojet engines and turboprop engines).
Turbojet engines have become widespread in combat aircraft, and turboprop engines and turbojet engines have become widespread in passenger and transport aircraft. Rocket engines (liquid rocket engines) are not widely used due to the short available flight duration (it is necessary to have not only an oxidizer on board, but also an oxidizer), although they were used in a number of experimental rockets, in which record flight speeds were achieved. Traction, economic and aviation gas turbine engines were continuously improved by increasing the parameters of the engine's operating process, using new materials, design solutions and technological processes. An increase in flight speeds up to high supersonic ones (M(() = 3) was achieved using turbojet engines equipped with an afterburner, which made it possible to significantly (by 50% or more) increase the engine thrust. In experimental aircraft, power plants consisting only of ramjet engines (starting from a ramjet engine), as well as combined installations (+ ramjet engine) Power plants with a ramjet engine provide further expansion of the speed range of the ramjet engine (). cm. Hypersonic aircraft). In subsonic passenger and transport aircraft, economical turbojet engines were used, first with a low bypass ratio, and later (in the 60-70s) with a high bypass ratio. The specific fuel consumption on a supersonic aircraft reaches 0.2 kg/(Nph) in afterburner flight modes; for subsonic aircraft in cruising flight modes it is increased to 0.22-0.3 kg/(kW h) for turboprop engines and 0. 07-0.058 kg/(N h) for turbojet bypass engines. The creation of highly loaded propellers that maintain high efficiency up to high flight speeds (M(() 0.8) forms the basis for the development of turbofan engines, which are 15-20% more economical than turbojet bypass engines. Passenger aircraft engines are equipped with thrust reversal devices on landing to reduce the run length and are low-noise ( cm. Noise standards). The number of engines in a power plant depends mainly on the purpose of the engine, its main parameters and requirements for flight characteristics. The total power (thrust) of the power plant, determined by the required starting power-to-weight ratio (thrust-to-weight ratio) of the aircraft, is selected based on the conditions of not exceeding the specified take-off run length, ensuring a climb in the event of one engine failure, achieving maximum flight speed at a given altitude, etc. Thrust-to-weight ratio of a modern supersonic fighter reaches 1.2, while for a subsonic passenger aircraft the S. is usually in the range of 0.22-0.35. There are various options for placing engines on the S. Piston engines were usually installed on the wing and in the forward part of the fuselage. The engines on turboprop aircraft are installed similarly. On jet aircraft, the layout solutions are more varied. On light combat aircraft, one or two turbojet engines are usually installed in the fuselage. On heavy jet aircraft, the practice was to place the engines in the root part of the wing, but the scheme of suspending the engines on pylons under the wing became more widespread. On a passenger aircraft, engines (2, 3, or 4) are often placed on the rear of the fuselage, and in the three-engine version, one engine is placed inside the fuselage, and it is placed in the root part of the fin. The advantages of such arrangements include reduced noise in the passenger cabin and increased aerodynamic quality due to a “clean” wing. Three-engine versions of passenger aircraft are also made according to a scheme with two engines on pylons under the wing and one in the rear fuselage. On some supersonic aircraft, the engine nacelles are located directly on the lower surface of the wing, and special profiling of the outer contours of the nacelles makes it possible to use a system of shock waves (increasing pressure) to obtain additional lift on the wing. Installation of engines on top of the wing is used in short takeoff and landing aircraft with airflow over the upper surface of the wing.
Aviation engines use liquid - gasoline in piston engines and the so-called (kerosene type) in gas turbine engines ( cm. Aviation fuel). Due to the depletion of natural oil reserves, synthetic fuels, cryogenic fuels (in 1988 the USSR created an experimental aircraft Tu-155, using liquefied gas as fuel), as well as aviation nuclear power plants, can be used. A number of light experimental solar systems have been created that use energy solar panels (cm. Solar plane), of which the most famous is “Solar” (USA); It carried the flight from Paris to London in 1981. Construction of demonstration aircraft with a muscular propeller drive continues ( cm. Muscle plane). In 1988, the flight range of a muscle plane reached about 120 km at a speed of over 30 km/h.
Aircraft equipment.
Ensures piloting, flight safety, and creation of the necessary conditions for the life of members. crew and passengers and performing tasks related to the purpose of the aircraft. Flight navigation, radio engineering and radar equipment are used for aircraft navigation. To increase flight safety, fire-fighting, emergency rescue, external lighting equipment, anti-icing and other systems are designed. The life support system includes air conditioning and cabin pressurization systems, oxygen equipment. The power supply for power supply systems and units is provided by electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic systems. The target equipment is determined by type C. This includes, for example, units for spraying chemicals on agricultural vehicles, household equipment for passenger vehicles, surveillance and sighting systems for combat vehicles, reconnaissance, anti-submarine, airborne transport, search and rescue equipment, and radar patrol equipment. and guidance, electronic warfare, etc. (instruments, indicators, alarms) provides the crew with the information necessary to carry out the flight mission, control the operation of the power plant and on-board equipment. In the early stages of development, aircraft were equipped with a small number of instruments that controlled the basic flight parameters (altitude, heading, roll, speed) and engine speed, and could fly under conditions of visual visibility of the horizon and ground references. The expansion of the practical use of satellites and the increase in flight range and altitude required the creation of on-board equipment that would make it possible to perform long flights day and night, in difficult meteorological and geographical conditions. In the first half of the 30s. gyroscopic means were created (artificial horizon, gyro-semi-compass), which provided for flights in clouds, fog, at night, and autopilots began to be used, which freed the pilot from the tedious work of maintaining a given flight mode at long routes. At the end of the 20s. Aircraft transceiver radio stations began to be introduced. In the 30s On-board and ground-based radio equipment (radio compasses, direction finders, radio beacons, radio markers) began to be used to determine the flight direction and location of the aircraft, as well as in the first instrument approach systems. During World War II, radars were used in combat aircraft, which were used for target detection and navigation. In the post-war years, the functionality of aircraft equipment was significantly expanded, and its accuracy was increased. Flight navigation equipment is created based on the use of a variety of means: combined systems for determining airspeed parameters, Doppler meters of ground speed and drift angle, heading systems with magnetic, gyroscopic and astronomical sensors, radio engineering systems for short-range and long-range navigation, high-precision inertial systems, radar sights to clarify the location of the S. and determine the meteorological situation, etc. More accurate instrumental (instrument) approach systems, and then automatic landing systems, were used. On-board digital computers are used to process information and automatically control the operation of various systems. On combat S. onboard radar stations are widely used in surveillance and targeting systems for detecting air and ground targets and guiding guided missiles at them. For the same purposes, optical-electronic systems are used, including heat direction finders, laser locators, etc. The information content of display means has increased. The use of on-screen indicators and head-up indicators is increasing. The latter allow the pilot to see the necessary information projected in front of him, without being distracted from the view of the extra-cockpit space in critical flight modes. Expert crew assistance systems based on artificial intelligence and a voice control system were tested experimentally (in the late 80s). On modern airplanes, the layout of the flight deck, the selection of the optimal composition, and the location of information display equipment, control panels, etc. are made taking into account the requirements of aviation ergonomics.
Armament.
The armament of military weapons is intended to destroy manpower, air, ground, and sea (underwater and surface) targets and includes (depending on the weapon’s purpose) machine gun and cannon, bomber, mine, torpedo, and missile weapons. In this case, small arms and missiles can be offensive or serve for defense against enemy fighters (for example, on bombers, military transport aircraft). The formation of the main combat aircraft (fighters and bombers) dates back to the period of the First World War. Initially, conventional (army) machine guns were used. It was important to use a synchronizer, which allows firing through the plane of rotation of the propeller. Fighters were armed with fixed synchronized machine guns, and on bombers machine guns were mounted on rotating devices to organize all-round defense. The ancestor of bomber aviation was the aircraft "" (1913). Its bomb load reached 500 kg. During the period between the two world wars, special machine-gun and cannon weapons were created that met the requirements of aviation use (low weight and dimensions, high, low recoil, remote control of firing and reloading, etc.). A new type of weapon was created in the 30s. uncontrollable. Second World War clearly demonstrated the great role of weaponry as a means of armed struggle. In the first half of the 50s. S. appeared, armed with guided missiles. The basis of modern missile armament are guided missiles of the air-to-air and air-to-surface classes with different firing ranges and various guidance methods. The launch range reaches 300 km for air-to-air missiles and tactical air-to-surface missiles ( cm. Aviation rocket).
In the early 80s. bombers began to be armed with strategic air-to-surface cruise missiles with a launch range of up to 2500 km. On light rockets, the rockets are suspended on external holders, while on heavy ones they can also be placed inside the fuselage (including on rotating drums).
Construction materials.
The main material for the manufacture of the frame of most of the first aircraft was wood; fabrics (for example, percale) were used as covering, and metal was used only to connect various components of the aircraft, in the chassis and in the engines. The first all-metal Ss were built in 1912-1915. In the early 20s. became widespread, which for many years became the main structural material in aircraft construction, due to the combination of high strength and low weight properties that are important for aircraft. Stronger steels were used in heavily loaded structural elements (for example, in the chassis). For a long time (until the Second World War), buildings of mixed (wooden and metal) construction were also created. With increasing flight speed, the requirements for structural materials have increased due to the increased (due to aerodynamic heating) operating temperature of structural elements. It is close to the air stagnation temperature, which depends on the flight speed and is determined by the relation
T0 T(1 + 0.2M(()2),
where T is the air temperature. When flying in the lower stratosphere (T = 216.65 K), the numbers M(() = 1, M(() = 2 and M(() = 3) will correspond to the air flow stagnation temperature values ​​of 260, 390, 607 K (or - 13, 117, 334 (-) C). Aluminum alloys predominate in the design of aircraft with maximum flight speeds corresponding to numbers M(() = 2-2.2. At higher speeds, special steels also begin to be used. Development hypersonic speeds flight requires the use of heat-resistant alloys, “hot”, heat-protected or cooled structures (for example, using liquid hydrogen fuel, which has a large cooling resource). Since the 70s In auxiliary structures, steel began to be used, which has high specific strength and rigidity characteristics. The manufacture of power elements from them will significantly increase the weight perfection of the S design. In the 80s. A number of lightweight solar cells were created, almost entirely made of composite materials. Among them is the record-breaking aircraft “,” which made a non-stop flight in 1986. round the world flight without refueling in flight.
Airplane control.
Many schemes and configurations of the aircraft were tested before it became stable and well-controllable in flight. The aircraft's stability and controllability in a wide range of operating conditions is ensured by an appropriate choice of geometric parameters of the wing, tail, controls and its alignment, as well as control automation. To maintain a given flight mode and change the aircraft's trajectory, control surfaces (rudders) are used, which in the traditional case include an elevator, a rudder, and oppositely deflected ones ( cm. also governing bodies). Control is carried out by changing aerodynamic forces and moments when these surfaces deflect. To deflect the control surfaces, it moves the control handle (or steering wheel) and pedals installed in the cockpit. Using the control stick, the elevator (longitudinal control) and ailerons (lateral control) are deflected, and the rudder (directional control) is deflected using the pedals. connected to the steering wheels by flexible (cable) or rigid control wiring. On many types of aircraft, control levers are equipped at the workstations of two crew members. To reduce the forces on the control levers necessary to deflect the rudders, various types of compensation for the hinge moment occurring on them are used. In steady-state flight conditions, it may be necessary to deflect the rudders to balance C. In this case, auxiliary control surfaces - trimmers - are used to compensate for the hinge moment. At large hinge moments (on heavy or supersonic aircraft), hydraulic steering actuators are used to deflect the rudders. In the 70s The so-called (EDSU) has found application. On the S. with EMDS, there is no mechanical control wiring (or is backup), and the transmission of signals from the command levers to the rudder deflection actuators is carried out via electrical communications. EMDS has a smaller mass and allows increasing reliability by redundant communication lines. Fly-by-wire systems are also used in new types of control systems based on the use of sensitive sensors, computer technology and high-speed drives. These include systems that make it possible to control a statically unstable aircraft (such aerodynamic configurations provide benefits in aerodynamic and weight characteristics), as well as systems designed to reduce the loads acting on the aircraft during maneuvering or flight in a turbulent atmosphere, to suppress flutter and etc. ( cm. Active control systems). New control systems open up the possibility of implementing unusual forms of aircraft movement in the vertical and horizontal planes due to the direct control of lifting and lateral forces (without transient processes associated with a preliminary change in the angular position of the aircraft during traditional control), which increases control speed and piloting accuracy. In the 80s experimental remote control systems using fiber-optic communication channels have been created.
Aircraft operation.
To prepare aircraft for flight and take off and land, specially equipped airfields are needed. Depending on the take-off weight, type of landing gear, and takeoff and landing characteristics, the aircraft can be operated from airfields with natural or artificial surfaces and with different runway lengths. Unpaved airfields are used mainly for air carriers of local air lines, agricultural air carriers, forward-based combat aircraft (fighters, attack aircraft, etc.), as well as military transport and cargo air carriers with all-terrain chassis (with low specific gravity). load on the ground) and powerful wing mechanization. Some types of aircraft (heavy bombers, long-haul passenger aircraft, etc.) require concrete airfields, and the required length runway can reach 3000-4500 m. Preparation of aircraft for flight includes checking the serviceability of systems and equipment, refueling, loading aircraft, suspension of bomber and missile weapons, etc. Passenger aircraft flights are controlled by ground air traffic control services and are carried out according to special instructions. established air routes with the necessary separation. Many types of aircraft are capable of autonomous flight. The crew of the aircraft is diverse in terms of the number of members and the functions of its members and is determined by the type C. In addition to one or two pilots, it may include a navigator, flight engineer, flight radio operator, gunners and on-board equipment operators, flight attendants (on passenger aircraft). The largest number of crew members are S. , equipped with special radio-electronic equipment (up to 10-12 people on anti-submarine navigation systems, up to 14-17 people on long-range radar detection systems). The crews of military aircraft are provided with the possibility of emergency escape from the aircraft using a parachute or by ejection. On some types of aircraft, to protect crew members from the effects of adverse flight factors, it is used. protective equipment, for example, altitude-compensating and anti-overload suits, etc. ( cm. High altitude equipment). is ensured by a complex of various measures, including: proper standardization of the strength and reliability of the structure of the structure and its components; equipping the aircraft with special systems and equipment that increase the reliability of its flight operation; redundancy of vital systems; performing the necessary laboratory and bench tests of systems and assemblies, including tests of full-scale structures for strength and fatigue; carrying out flight tests to verify the aircraft’s compliance with technical requirements and airworthiness standards; careful technical control during the production process; special selection and high level of professional training of flight personnel; an extensive network of ground air traffic control services; systematically carrying out preventive (routine) work with in-depth control during operation technical condition engines, systems and units, their replacement due to the exhaustion of the established resource, etc.- noun, m., used often Morphology: (no) what? airplane, why? airplane, (I see) what? plane, what? by plane, about what? about the plane; pl. What? airplanes, (no) what? airplanes, why? airplanes, (I see) what? airplanes, what? airplanes, about what? about airplanes... ... Dmitriev's Explanatory Dictionary

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The invention of the airplane made it possible not only to fulfill mankind's oldest dream - to conquer the sky, but also to create the fastest mode of transport. Unlike balloons and airships, airplanes are little dependent on the vagaries of the weather and are capable of covering long distances at high speed. The components of the aircraft consist of the following structural groups: wing, fuselage, tail, takeoff and landing devices, power plant, control systems, and various equipment.

Operating principle

An airplane is a heavier-than-air aircraft equipped with a power plant. With the help of this most important part of the aircraft, the thrust necessary for flight is created - the active (driving) force that is developed on the ground or in flight by a motor (propeller or jet engine). If the propeller is located in front of the engine, it is called a pulling propeller, and if behind it, it is called a pushing propeller. Thus, the engine creates forward motion of the aircraft relative to the environment (air). Accordingly, the wing also moves relative to the air, which creates lift as a result of this translational movement. Therefore, the device can stay in the air only if there is a certain flight speed.

What are the parts of an airplane called?

The body consists of the following main parts:

• The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft, connecting the wings (wing), tail surfaces, power system, landing gear and other components into a single whole. The fuselage houses the crew, passengers (in civil aviation), equipment, and payload. It can also (not always) accommodate fuel, chassis, engines, etc.
• Engines are used to propel an aircraft.
• A wing is a working surface designed to create lift.
• The vertical tail is designed for controllability, balancing and directional stability of the aircraft relative to the vertical axis.
• The horizontal tail is designed for controllability, balancing and directional stability of the aircraft relative to the horizontal axis.

Wings and fuselage

The main part of the aircraft structure is the wing. It creates the conditions for fulfilling the main requirement for the possibility of flight - the presence of lifting force. The wing is attached to the body (fuselage), which can have one shape or another, but with minimal aerodynamic drag if possible. To do this, it is given a conveniently streamlined drop-shaped shape.

The front part of the aircraft houses the cockpit and radar systems. In the rear part there is the so-called tail unit. It serves to ensure controllability during flight.

Empennage design

Let's consider an average aircraft, the tail section of which is made according to the classical design, characteristic of most military and civilian models. In this case, the horizontal tail will include a fixed part - the stabilizer (from the Latin Stabilis, stable) and a movable part - the elevator.

The stabilizer serves to stabilize the aircraft relative to the transverse axis. If the nose of the aircraft goes down, then, accordingly, the rear part of the fuselage, together with the tail, will rise up. In this case, the air pressure on the upper surface of the stabilizer will increase. The pressure created will return the stabilizer (and, accordingly, the fuselage) to its original position. When the nose of the fuselage rises upward, the pressure of the air flow will increase on the lower surface of the stabilizer, and it will return to its original position. This ensures automatic (without pilot intervention) stability of the aircraft in its longitudinal plane relative to the transverse axis.

The rear of the aircraft also includes vertical tail. Similar to the horizontal one, it consists of a fixed part - the keel, and a movable part - the rudder. The fin gives stability to the movement of the aircraft relative to its vertical axis in the horizontal plane. The principle of operation of the keel is similar to the action of a stabilizer - when the nose is deflected to the left, the keel deviates to the right, the pressure on its right plane increases and returns the keel (and the entire fuselage) to its previous position.

Thus, relative to two axes, flight stability is ensured by the tail. But there is one more axis left - the longitudinal one. To provide automatic stability of movement relative to this axis (in the transverse plane), the glider wing consoles are placed not horizontally, but at a certain angle relative to each other so that the ends of the consoles are deflected upward. This placement resembles the letter "V".

Control systems

Control surfaces are important parts of an aircraft designed for control. These include ailerons, rudders and elevators. Control is provided relative to the same three axes in the same three planes.

The elevator is the movable rear part of the stabilizer. If the stabilizer consists of two consoles, then, accordingly, there are two elevators that deflect down or up, both synchronously. With its help, the pilot can change the flight altitude of the aircraft.

The rudder is the movable rear part of the keel. When it is deflected in one direction or another, an aerodynamic force arises on it, which rotates the aircraft relative to a vertical axis passing through the center of mass, in the opposite direction from the direction of deflection of the rudder. Rotation occurs until the pilot returns the rudder to the neutral (not deflected) position, and the aircraft will move in a new direction.

Ailerons (from the French Aile, wing) are the main parts of the aircraft, which are the moving parts of the wing consoles. They are used to control the aircraft relative to the longitudinal axis (in the transverse plane). Since there are two wing consoles, there are also two ailerons. They work synchronously, but, unlike elevators, they deviate not in one direction, but in different directions. If one aileron moves up, the other moves down. On the wing console, where the aileron is deflected upward, the lift force decreases, and where it is deflected downward, it increases. And the fuselage of the aircraft rotates towards the raised aileron.

Engines

All aircraft are equipped with a power plant that allows them to develop speed and, therefore, provide lift. Engines can be located in the rear of the aircraft (typical for jet aircraft), in the front (light-engine aircraft) and on the wings ( civil aircraft, transporters, bombers).

They are divided into:

• Jet - turbojet, pulsating, double-circuit, direct-flow.
• Screw - piston (propeller), turboprop.
• Rocket - liquid, solid fuel.

Other systems

Of course, other parts of the aircraft are also important. The landing gear allows you to take off and land from equipped airfields. There are amphibious aircraft where special floats are used instead of landing gear - they allow take-off and landing in any place where there is a body of water (sea, river, lake). There are known models of light aircraft equipped with skis for operation in areas with stable snow cover.

Stuffed with electronic equipment, communication and information transfer devices. Military aviation uses sophisticated weapons, target acquisition and signal jamming systems.

Classification

According to their purpose, aircraft are divided into two large groups: civil and military. The main parts of a passenger aircraft are distinguished by the presence of an equipped passenger compartment, which occupies most of the fuselage. A distinctive feature is the portholes on the sides of the hull.

Civil aircraft are divided into:

• Passenger - local airlines, long-distance (range less than 2000 km), medium (range less than 4000 km), long-distance (range less than 9000 km) and intercontinental (range more than 11,000 km).
• Cargo - light (cargo weight up to 10 tons), medium (cargo weight up to 40 tons) and heavy (cargo weight more than 40 tons).
• Special purpose - sanitary, agricultural, reconnaissance (ice reconnaissance, fish reconnaissance), fire fighting, for aerial photography.
• Educational.

Unlike civilian models, parts of military aircraft do not have a comfortable cabin with windows. The main part of the fuselage is occupied by weapons systems, equipment for reconnaissance, communications, engines and other units.

According to their purpose, modern military aircraft (taking into account the combat missions they perform) can be divided into the following types: fighters, attack aircraft, bombers (missile carriers), reconnaissance aircraft, military transport aircraft, special purpose aircraft and auxiliary aircraft.

Airplane structure

The design of aircraft depends on the aerodynamic design according to which they are made. The aerodynamic design is characterized by the number of main elements and the location of the load-bearing surfaces. If bow Although the aircraft is similar for most models, the location and geometry of the wings and tail can vary greatly.

The following aircraft design schemes are distinguished:

• "Classical".
• "Flying Wing"
• "Duck".
• "Tailless."
• "Tandem".
• Convertible circuit.
• Combined scheme.

Airplanes made according to the classical design

Let's look at the main parts of the aircraft and their purpose. The classic (normal) layout of components and assemblies is typical for most devices in the world, be they military or civilian. The main element - the wing - operates in a pure undisturbed flow, which smoothly flows around the wing and creates a certain lift force.

The nose of the aircraft is reduced, which leads to a reduction in the required area (and therefore the mass) of the vertical tail. This is because the nose of the fuselage causes a destabilizing moment about the aircraft's vertical axis. The reduction of the forward fuselage improves visibility of the forward hemisphere.

The disadvantages of the normal scheme are:

• The operation of the horizontal tail (HE) in a slanted and disturbed wing flow significantly reduces its efficiency, which necessitates the use of a larger surface area (and, consequently, mass).
• To ensure flight stability, the vertical tail (VT) must create a negative lift force, that is, directed downward. This reduces the overall efficiency of the aircraft: from the amount of lift that the wing creates, it is necessary to subtract the force that is created by the lift. To neutralize this phenomenon, a wing of increased area (and, consequently, mass) should be used.

Airplane structure according to the "duck" scheme

With this design, the main parts of the aircraft are placed differently than in the “classic” models. First of all, the changes affected the layout of the horizontal tail. It is located in front of the wing. The Wright brothers built their first airplane using this design.

Advantages:

• The vertical tail works in an undisturbed flow, which increases its efficiency.
• To ensure stable flight, the tail creates positive lift, which means it adds to the lift of the wing. This allows you to reduce its area and, accordingly, weight.
• Natural “anti-spin” protection: the possibility of moving the wings to supercritical angles of attack for “ducks” is excluded. The stabilizer is installed so that it receives a greater angle of attack compared to the wing.
• The movement of the aircraft's focus backwards as speed increases with the canard configuration occurs to a lesser extent than with the classic configuration. This leads to smaller changes in the degree of longitudinal static stability of the aircraft, in turn, simplifies its control characteristics.

Disadvantages of the "duck" scheme:

• When the flow on the tails is disrupted, not only does the aircraft reach lower angles of attack, but it also “sags” due to a decrease in its overall lift force. This is especially dangerous during takeoff and landing modes due to the proximity of the ground.
• The presence of fin mechanisms in the forward part of the fuselage impairs the visibility of the lower hemisphere.
• To reduce the area of ​​the front GO, the length of the forward part of the fuselage is made significant. This leads to an increase in the destabilizing moment relative to the vertical axis, and, accordingly, to an increase in the area and weight of the structure.

Airplanes made according to the “tailless” design

Models of this type do not have an important, familiar part of the aircraft. Photos of tailless aircraft (Concorde, Mirage, Vulcan) show that they do not have horizontal tail. The main advantages of this scheme are:

• Reducing frontal aerodynamic drag, which is especially important for aircraft with high speed, in particular cruising speed. At the same time, fuel costs are reduced.
• Greater torsional rigidity of the wing, which improves its aeroelasticity characteristics, and achieves high maneuverability characteristics.

Flaws:

• To balance in some flight modes, part of the mechanization of the trailing edge and control surfaces must be deflected upward, which reduces the overall lifting force of the aircraft.
• The combination of aircraft controls relative to the horizontal and longitudinal axes (due to the absence of an elevator) worsens its controllability characteristics. The lack of specialized tail surfaces forces the control surfaces to be located on the trailing edge of the wing, performing (if necessary) the duties of both ailerons and elevators. These control surfaces are called elevons.
• The use of some mechanical aids to balance the aircraft worsens its takeoff and landing characteristics.

"Flying Wing"

With this design, there is actually no such part of the aircraft as the fuselage. All volumes necessary to accommodate the crew, payload, engines, fuel, and equipment are located in the middle of the wing. This scheme has the following advantages:

• Lowest aerodynamic drag.
• Lowest weight of the structure. In this case, the entire mass falls on the wing.
• Since the longitudinal dimensions of the aircraft are small (due to the absence of a fuselage), the destabilizing moment relative to its vertical axis is insignificant. This allows designers to either significantly reduce the area of ​​the airbox or abandon it altogether (birds, as is known, do not have vertical plumage).

The disadvantages include the difficulty of ensuring aircraft flight stability.

"Tandem"

The “tandem” scheme, when two wings are located one behind the other, is rarely used. This solution is used to increase the wing area with the same values ​​of its span and fuselage length. This reduces the specific load on the wing. The disadvantages of this scheme are the large increase in the moment of inertia, especially in relation to the transverse axis of the aircraft. In addition, as the flight speed increases, the longitudinal balancing characteristics of the aircraft change. The control surfaces on such aircraft can be located either directly on the wings or on the tail surfaces.

Combined scheme

In this case, the components of the aircraft can be combined using different structural schemes. For example, horizontal tail surfaces are provided in both the nose and tail of the fuselage. They can use so-called direct lift control.

In this case, the horizontal nose tail together with the flaps create additional lift. The pitching moment that occurs in this case will be aimed at increasing the angle of attack (the nose of the aircraft rises). To counter this moment, the tail unit must create a moment to reduce the angle of attack (the nose of the aircraft lowers). For this purpose the force is tail section should also be directed upwards. That is, there is an increase in lifting force on the nose cylinder, on the wing and on the tail cylinder (and, consequently, on the entire aircraft) without rotating it in the longitudinal plane. In this case, the plane simply rises without any evolution relative to its center of mass. And vice versa, with such an aerodynamic configuration of the aircraft, it can carry out evolutions relative to the center of mass in the longitudinal plane without changing the trajectory of its flight.

The ability to perform such maneuvers is significantly improved performance characteristics maneuverable aircraft. Especially in combination with a system of direct control of lateral force, for the implementation of which the aircraft must have not only a tail, but also a nose longitudinal empennage.

Convertible circuit

Built according to a convertible design, it is distinguished by the presence of a destabilizer in the forward part of the fuselage. The function of destabilizers is to reduce, within certain limits, or even completely eliminate the rearward displacement of the aerodynamic focus of the aircraft in supersonic flight conditions. This increases the aircraft's maneuverability (important for a fighter aircraft) and increases range or reduces fuel consumption (important for a supersonic passenger aircraft).

Destabilizers can also be used in takeoff/landing modes to compensate for the dive moment, which is caused by the deviation of the takeoff and landing mechanization (flaps, flaps) or the nose of the fuselage. In subsonic flight modes, the destabilizer is hidden in the middle of the fuselage or set to a weather vane mode (freely oriented along the flow).

 

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