UAE: population, territory, capital, economy, flag, president, culture. History of the United Arab Emirates. Population and citizens of the UAE

Federal Supreme Court is the highest organ of the judiciary. As in any modern civilized state, in the UAE the judiciary is separated from the executive.

The Federal Supreme Court consists of five judges appointed by the Supreme Council. Judges determine the constitutionality of federal laws and arbitrate disputes between emirates and disputes between the federal government and the emirates.

This system of governance may seem authoritarian, but it is natural for the Emiratis and has developed as a result of the country’s history.

Story

Even 8,000 years ago, on the territory of modern UAE, arose ancient civilization– culture of Umm an-Nar. The climate then was much milder, which made it possible to fully develop agriculture. Over time, desertification occurred and the ancient culture died out.

Before the 12th century there was no large settlements, the area was inhabited by nomads, fishermen from the coast and a few inhabitants of the oases. In 632, on the territory of the modern emirate of Ras al-Khaimah, one of the most important battles of the “War with the Apostates” took place - the Battle of Dhaba.

Since the 12th century, port cities have flourished, the emirates have participated in developed trading network Indian Ocean, cultural and commodity exchange flourishes. In the 16th century, the Portuguese came to the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, capturing some of the ports.

In the 17th century, Portugal lost its power, and the Dutch gained control of the Persian Gulf. In the 18th century they were replaced by the British. For a long time, the emirates fell under British influence and partial control.

Read the detailed story in our large and interesting article “ ”.

Who lives in the UAE

Now (note: the article was written in 2017) only 10% of the population are indigenous Arabs (citizens). The rest are temporary workers from India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Iran, Egypt and other countries.

Their relationship is complex, which we wrote about in detail in the article “”.

Laws

The UAE has a very complex legal system, but also a very interesting one; it is a unique fusion of Islamic and Anglo-Saxon legal traditions.

Each emirate chooses for itself whether to have its own judicial system or join the federal one. On this moment(note: the article was written in 2017) only Dubai and Ras al-Khaimah have their own judicial system.

Sharia law does not have the status of law in the UAE, but the country's legislation is largely based on Sharia law. There are Sharia courts in the country that hear cases of divorce, guardianship, and family disputes. Criminal and administrative cases are dealt with by secular courts.

The UAE uses Islamic forms of punishment. For example, lashing is used; several dozen people a year receive similar sentences. Stoning as a form of death penalty is legalized, although it is now almost never used.

Much that we are already accustomed to is prohibited and punishable in the UAE:

Verbal abuse with sexual overtones can be punished by imprisonment or 80 lashes;

Abortion is punishable by up to 1 year in prison and a fine of up to Dh10,000;

Apostasy from Islam is punishable death penalty;

Homosexuality is punishable by up to 12 years in prison;

You can go to jail for drunk driving or even for drinking in public, as we discussed in the article "".

Interesting fact that crime in the UAE is very “young”. According to statistics in 2015, about 40% of all offenses were committed by minors (persons under 18 years of age).

State structure United United Arab Emirates represents a unique combination of republican and monarchical systems. The UAE is a federal state consisting of seven emirates - absolute monarchies. The state is headed by the Emir of Abu Dhabi, the government is headed by the Emir of Dubai.

Coast of the Federation of Arab Principalities Persian Gulf was given to Britain by treaty in the 19th century to oversee defense and to assist in foreign affairs. In 1971, six of the seven emirates of Trucial Oman - Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai and Umm al Quwain - announced the creation of a federation called the United Arab Emirates. The seventh emirate, Ras al-Khaimah, joined it in 1972. In terms of GDP per capita, the UAE is close to leading Western European countries. Huge financial resources from oil revenues and a moderate approach in foreign policy matters have allowed the UAE to occupy a vital place in the affairs of the region. The largest emirate - Abu Dhabi - occupies 85% of the territory, a third of the UAE population lives here.

All emirates are absolute monarchies; only Abu Dhabi has advisory bodies - the Cabinet and the National Advisory Council, which brings this emirate closer to a constitutional monarchy. Each emirate has its own government and administrative authorities.

The rulers of the emirates constitute a legislative body - the Supreme Council, which elects the president and vice-president of the federation for a two-year term. The president appoints the prime minister and cabinet members. The Federal Council of Ministers, headed by the President, reports to the Supreme Council. The Federal National Council consists of 40 representatives from each emirate and is an advisory body. Since the formation of the UAE in 1971, the head of state - president has been Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, ruler of Abu Dhabi since 1966. On November 3, 2004, after the death of his father, Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan became the second President of the United Arab Emirates.

The official name of the country: United Arab Emirates

Common country name: Emirates

Official name in the country's language: al-Imarat al-Arabiya al-Muttahida

Common name in the country's language: No

Former name: Oman Negotiated

Abbreviation: UAE

Administrative division of the UAE

The UAE consists of 7 emirates:

• Abu Dhabi
• Ajman
• Dubai
• Ras Al Khaimah
• Umm Al Quwain
• Fujairah
• Sharjah

The capital of the UAE is Abu Dhabi.

UAE Constitution: adopted December 2, 1971; has been operating on a permanent basis since 1996

UAE legal system: based on a dual system - Sharia courts and civil courts; does not accept the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice

Suffrage in the UAE: No

Executive branch in the UAE: head of state - President, ruler of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi; Vice President and Prime Minister, Deputy Prime Minister. Cabinet: Council of Ministers - appointed by the president. In addition - the Supreme Council of the Union, consisting of seven rulers of the emirates; The Supreme Council of the Union is the highest constitutional body in the UAE, determines general policy and sanctions of federal legislation, and the Council of Ministers is responsible to the Supreme Council for the implementation of this policy; meets four times a year; The rulers of the emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai have veto power.

Elections: The post of President of the United Arab Emirates is combined with the post of Emir of the capital emirate of Abu Dhabi. Since the emirate itself is an absolute monarchy, power in it, and therefore in the entire state, is inherited. The President of the UAE is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces and Chairman of the Supreme Defense Council. The head of state signs decrees and resolutions confirmed by the Supreme Council, and normative acts adopted by the Council of Ministers. In addition, the president appoints members of the diplomatic corps, senior civilian and military officials, declares amnesty or confirms death sentences. The Vice President is appointed to the position by the Supreme Council of the Union for a 5-year term. The Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister are appointed by the President.

Legislative branch in the UAE: The legislative power in the UAE is represented by the Federal National Council (Majlis Al-Ittihad Al-Watani), which includes representatives from each emirate, the number of which is enshrined in the constitution and is determined depending on the population, political and economic situation in a particular emirate. Each emirate has the right to choose its own method of electing representatives to the National Council. Currently, the Council consists of 40 deputies (8 each from Abu Dhabi and Dubai, 6 each from Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah, and 4 each from Fujairah, Al Quwain and Ajman).

The National Council is not a legislative body in the full sense of the word, since it does not have legislative initiative. Its powers include only discussing laws proposed by the Council of Ministers and introducing amendments and additions at its discretion. The Council also has the power to veto any bill. However, in this case, the president has the right to pass the law after approval by the Supreme Council of the union.

Judicial branch in the UAE: The judiciary in the UAE is represented by the Supreme Court of Justice, which is the supreme federal court of the United Arab Emirates. It consists of a chairman and 4 independent judges (judges are appointed by the president). The Supreme Court regulates relations between the emirates, members of the Supreme Union, federal and local authorities.

UAE coat of arms

The coat of arms of the United Arab Emirates depicts a yellow falcon - a symbol of autocracy in a country, most of which is occupied by desert. The tail plumage symbolizes the seven emirates - seven feathers.

If earlier falconry was a way of subsistence for coastal residents, now it has been preserved as an elite entertainment available only to the wealthiest people. Now in the UAE such hunting is prohibited (for the sake of preserving the population of desert animals), and fans of this sport have to fly to other desert countries, for example, to Turkmenistan. By the way, in Dubai there is a special hospital for falcons with anesthesia equipment, cardiac stimulators and X-ray machines.

On the chest of a falcon in a red circle (a symbol of courage and independence in the struggle for freedom), a wooden dhow schooner smoothly glides across the blue sea waves. It was on such ships that Arab divers went to sea for pearls. And not only them - warlike pirates roamed the sea. Trade and maritime affairs have long been the main occupations of coastal residents. Jewelers and traders of pearls and jewelry came to the ports of the Arabian Peninsula from the West and East.

UAE flag

The flag is made in pan-Arab colors: red, green, white and black, symbolizing Arab unity as a whole. Separately, each of the colors has its own meaning: green - fertility; white - neutrality; black - "black gold". UAE merchant ships often fly a red flag with the national flag on the upper left side.

In Southeast Asia, in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula, there is a fairly young state, but developing at a crazy pace - United Arab Emirates.

UAE- this is the embodiment of all facets of oriental flavor with an ultra-modern level of services. The country literally strives to become the first in everything: here are the most best hotels in the world, like mushrooms in a rainy autumn, handsome skyscrapers grow one higher than the other, tight wallets Arab sheikhs have long been the subject of envy. Diversity and scale shopping centers beckon and drive shopaholics from all over the world crazy, and jewelry stores will put the most colorfully decorated New Year tree in their belts - gold is piled high here, for every taste and budget. At the same time, the UAE delights with excellent endless beaches with the purest sand, warm, crystal water of the Persian Gulf, paradise oases right in the middle of the desert, excellent sunny weather all year round. The choice of excursion routes is amazing in variety, the range of entertainment negates even the slightest possibility of a boring pastime, both day and night.

An anecdote involuntarily comes to mind: “When passing by the building of the GazNeft company, you realize that you are passing by a beautiful life. Or rather, beautiful life passes you by." IN UAE for the natives it’s exactly the opposite. The Father of the Nation, Sheikh Zayed, with feeling, sense, and thoughtfulness, took care of the happy and comfortable fate of every indigenous resident, thereby rewarding them for past suffering.

Story

The history of the Emirates dates back to a very distant past. But the real breakthrough happened only in the middle of the twentieth century. Being a British colony, the not yet united Arab Emirates were absolutely unremarkable - a typical backward state, with a poor and illiterate population. It was the British who, in the late 50s, discovered the untold riches of the subsoil, which became the main locomotive in an unprecedented short time pulling the state into the TOP of successfully developing countries.

Geographical position.

The UAE is located on an area of ​​83,600 square kilometers, surrounded by wealthy neighbors to match itself - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the state of Qatar and the Sultanate of Oman.

The CLIMATE in the United Arab Emirates is dry subtropical. You have to try really hard to see rain here. Quantity rainy days in a non-drought year it can reach 10, but it also happens that there is no precipitation at all for the whole year. The air temperature in summer reaches +35…+43, in winter it does not fall below +13. The water in the bay warms up to +33 in summer, and cools down to +16 in winter.

State structure.

UAE- one of the richest states in the world, and the fact that it is just over 40 years old only adds respect and admiration! The country's first financial successes are associated with the start of production and export of “black gold” in the emirate of Abu Dhabi in 1962. And already in 1971, 6 Arab emirates (Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Ajman, Umm al-Quwain, Fujairah and Sharjah) decided that only together they could have a dizzying future and united into a confederation - the United Arab Emirates. A year later, another emirate of Ras al-Khaimah joined them. The capital is Abu Dhabi. Government is the responsibility of the Supreme Council, and each emirate is governed by a local sheikh. They speak mostly English in the Emirates, but state language is Arabic.

Customs.

In a country with fairly strict rules, naturally, there are restrictions on the import of certain goods. So, without any problems you can carry no more than 10 cartons of cigarettes or 400 cigars, or 2 kg of tobacco. For alcoholic products - no more than 2 liters of wine and 2 liters of stronger drinks. All these limits apply to every adult non-Muslim tourist. Cosmetics/perfumery can be carried within reasonable limits of personal needs.

You need to pack your travel first aid kit very carefully - codeine and codeine-containing drugs are strictly prohibited. Prescription medications can only be carried with a translated prescription. In the post-Soviet space, codeine is often used in antipyretic, antitussive and painkillers, so pay special attention to your first aid kit to avoid trouble at the UAE airport. Not everyone is checked, selectively, but recently more and more often.

There are specific features of the entry policy into the country. Tourists from Israel are prohibited from entering the UAE. Also, with a high probability, unmarried girls under 30 years of age traveling independently may be denied a visa. Only with mom/dad or already with my husband.

Money.

Dirham (AED) - national currency United Arab Emirates, equals 100 fils. It has been stable against the dollar for many years (exchange rate 1 dollar = 3.67 dirhams). Even at the airport there is such a course, which is very rare in our harsh everyday life. In everyday use there are banknotes in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 dirhams. There are also coins in denominations of 5, 10, 25 fils and 1 dirham. It is better to bring dollars with you; if you wish, you can pay with them, but change will be given in dirhams. Import/export of both foreign and national currency - without restrictions.

Cloth.

The UAE is a Muslim country, the moral rules of local residents are high and held in high esteem; tourists are strongly discouraged from violating them, even desperate tourists from the post-Soviet space. Therefore, you need to pack your suitcase for the Emirates wisely, do not overdo it with short T-shirts, skirts, shorts, tight-fitting clothes, and put off all clothes with a deep neckline until a more suitable occasion. Swimming trunks and swimsuits are only allowed on the beach or by the hotel pool; moving around the city in this form, even in a pareo, is prohibited. Sunglasses and hats will also come in handy.

Transport.

Public transport is poorly developed, most of the natives have their own iron horses, tourists often use taxi services. Buses are used primarily by visiting workers. In the cities of Dubai and Abu Dhabi there is a bus service between the main shopping centers. All buses are modern, always air-conditioned, and run strictly on schedule. Tickets are sold by the driver at the stops; on a Dubai bus the fare is 1.5 dirhams, entry only through the front door. Some emirate capitals also have bus services.

All self-respecting hotels provide their tourists with buses that will take them quickly and completely free of charge to the city center, shopping centers and beaches.

The most common and popular transport is a taxi. The cheapest way is to flag down a passing taxi. It is a little more expensive (a few dirhams) to rent a taxi from the hotel. There may be no meter, then the price of the trip must be agreed upon in advance. Bargaining is appropriate. At airports there is an “Airport Taxi” service; the tariff is fixed, quite high, and bargaining is not accepted here.

Car rental.

This service is popular among tourists. The registration procedure is simple; the requirement for the driver is to be at least 21 years old and have a driver’s license. The price of the issue depends on the brand of the car and the size of the company providing it. In small companies it is $30-60 per day, in large companies it is $60-300. The minimum rental time is 24 hours. The cost of gasoline is paid additionally. Compliance with traffic rules here it is recorded by radar, so if you are caught violating it, there is no point in arguing, the verdict cannot be appealed.

National characteristics.

Some prohibitions are incomprehensible and far-fetched, but this will not save you from liability for violation. So, you can't:

Photograph local women, men (only possible if they agree), government institutions, sheikh palaces and police stations;

Appear “in public” in the nude, nowhere, never and under any circumstances;

Drink strong drinks in public places (this does not apply to hotel bars - you can do so there). In the emirate of Sharjah you can’t even stay in a hotel. There is a strict dry law;

Littering on the street;

It is too urgent to show attention in public places to the fair half of humanity, even to your own spouse;

Lifelong boors and lovers of strong words will also have to learn to behave with dignity and express themselves without using profanity during their stay in the country;

The worst is for drug addicts. Consumption is punishable by prison, import and sale - by death.

During Ramadan (the Muslim holy month of fasting), it is advisable, as a sign of respect for the faith and solidarity with local residents, not to consume food or drinks in public places before sunset, and also to refrain from smoking.

Kitchen.

IN UAE The local population prefers mainly Arabic cuisine, which excludes pork and is generously seasoned with all kinds of spices. Veal, poultry, seafood, and eggs are held in high esteem. For tourists, there is a choice of almost all cuisines of the world; fortunately, there are a countless number of restaurants here.

Not every restaurant sells alcohol, so where they do offer booze, you will have to pay more for food.

Coffee connoisseurs will be able to treat themselves to invigorating drinks prepared according to a wide variety of recipes. There is a whole cult of coffee in the Emirates, so it is unlikely that you will come across something frankly bad. The ayran drink is also popular among the natives, but its taste is not for everyone.

Power supply.

Network voltage is 220-240V. Sockets in UAE Mostly not European, so an adapter is required. Hotels often provide this free of charge. Sold in any store.

Features in hotels.

In 5* and some 4* hotels, upon check-in you must make a cash deposit for the duration of your stay, for the convenience of internal payments at the hotel. They accept both cash and cash amounts. credit cards. Upon eviction, unused funds deposited in cash are returned (in dirhams only), while the amount blocked on the card becomes available after a few days.

Tips.

In establishments Catering usually included in the bill and amount to 10-15%. If generous gratitude is not included in the bill forcibly, it is customary to leave the waiter 10% of the order amount. Porters at the airport will help you move your luggage for 5-10 dirhams. Tipping is not accepted in taxis.

Purchases.

Trade is the main activity in the Emirates. Here you can buy everything your heart desires. As in any Arab country, bargaining is common in the UAE. Moreover, this is a whole art and the ability to do it well is valued by sellers, and helps reduce the price by up to 50%.

Telephone communications.

International country code is +971. The communication system in the United Arab Emirates is modern and well-functioning. You can call anywhere in the world from a street pay phone using coins or plastic cards; the latter can be purchased in stores and gas stations. The call will cost less if you buy a Prepaid card. According to it, the cost of a call will be minimal even from a hotel. mobile connection is also developed, but is somewhat more expensive.

Time.

The UAE switches to summer/winter time. Therefore, from the last Sunday in September to the last Sunday in March, time in the UAE is one hour ahead of Moscow. During the “summer period” the time coincides with Moscow.

Police.

If a policeman stops you on the street for a violation, there is no need to make excuses or argue. Useless. The laws work and are the same for everyone.

In case of an accident, the issue is resolved immediately on the spot, the policeman’s verdict is final.

Privileges for local residents.

For any of his projects, a native Emirati has the opportunity to take out an unlimited, perpetual and interest-free loan. And if for some reason objective reasons the project was not successful, then in Ramadan the unfortunate businessman can approach the sheikh, describe in detail his situation and the scale of the tragedy, and he, if he believes and is inspired, can pay the debt from his own funds.

State schools and universities conduct educational programs for local residents absolutely free of charge. Moreover, for those who have especially distinguished themselves and who wish to continue their studies at prestigious foreign universities, full payment for these classes by the state is provided.

A foreign enterprise can begin its activities in the territory UAE only on condition that the founders include a resident of the Emirates. At the same time, he does not have to work at all; he will simply receive a “salary” of at least $1,500.

It is impossible to obtain a residence permit or Emirati citizenship. Foreigners work as long as their work visa is valid. They either don’t pay taxes at all or pay a meager amount, so when they reach retirement age, they pack their bags and go to their native land for a well-deserved rest.

The content of the article

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES (UAE)(Arabic: Al-Amirat al-Arabiya al-Muttahida), federal state in South-West Asia, in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula, on the coast of the Persian and Oman Gulfs. It borders on Qatar in the north, Saudi Arabia in the south and southwest, and Oman in the northeast and southeast. In the north it is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf, in the east by the Gulf of Oman. Total length borders 867 km, coastline– 1318 km. The UAE includes the following emirates: Abu Dhabi (Abu Zabi; area 67,350 sq. km, or 87% of the country), Dubai (Dibai; 3,900 sq. km, or 5%), Sharjah (2,600 sq. km, or 3.3%), Ajman (259 sq. km, or 0.3%), Ras al-Khaimah (1,700 sq. km, or 2.2%), Umm al-Quwain (750 sq. km, or 1%), Fujairah (1150 sq. km, or 1.5%). The land borders run through deserts and are not clearly defined. total area- OK. 83,600 sq. km (including the islands of Abu Musa, Greater and Lesser Tunb). Population – about 3.13 million people, incl. 2.05 million non-citizens (2002). The capital is Abu Dhabi (420 thousand).

NATURE

Relief.

Most of the territory of the UAE is occupied by salt marshes and sandy deserts, in the west there are sandy and rocky deserts, in the east and northeast there are the Hajar Mountains (the highest point is the city of Adan, 1127 m). The most high point countries - Mount Jabal Yibir (1527 m). To the east of Al-Udayd Gulf, located at the base of the Qatar Peninsula, there are moving sand dunes, along the coast there are flat, barren salt marshes. The shores are mostly low, the coastline is indented with small bays, framed by islands and coral reefs protruding above the surface of the shallow waters.

The main mineral resources are oil and natural gas. Oil reserves are estimated at 12,330 million tons (about 10% of world reserves). The main oil fields in Abu Dhabi are Asab, Beb, Bu Hasa, Al-Zakum, in Dubai - Fallah, Fateh, South-West Fateh, Margham, in Sharjah - Mubarak. Natural gas reserves amount to 5794 billion cubic meters. m. In terms of natural gas reserves, the UAE ranks 4th in the world after Russia, Iran and Qatar. There are also deposits of uranium, chromium and nickel ores and bauxite.

Climate

dry, transitional from tropical to subtropical. Air temperature from November to May ranges from 18 to 25° C, from June to August - from 30 to 35° C (maximum up to 50° C), average monthly temperatures range from 20° to 35° C. Summer, with the exception of mountainous areas , very hot, in winter the weather becomes cooler. Precipitation is approx. 100 mm, in the mountains 300–400 mm per year (maximum in winter). Occasionally there are heavy downpours that cause great damage by washing out roads and disrupting communications. There are no permanent rivers; temporary streams flow through the valleys; most of the year they are dry riverbeds - wadis. Sources of fresh water along the flat coast of the Persian Gulf are very few. There is no agriculture west of Abu Dhabi. Intensive water intake from underground sources has led to a significant decrease in groundwater levels and their salinization.

Vegetation and fauna.

On the western slopes of the mountains there are large oases with vineyards, date palms, acacias, and tamarisk; Cereals, mangoes, bananas, lemons, and tobacco are also cultivated. In the mountains there is savanna-type vegetation. In desert areas there are hares, jerboas, gazelles, dromedary Arabian camels, and some species of lizards and snakes. The coastal waters of the Persian Gulf are rich in fish (sardines, herring, etc.) and pearls.

POPULATION

Demography.

From 1968 to 2003, the country's population increased 20 times, primarily due to the influx of foreign labor. In 2003, the total population of the UAE was 3.75 million people, incl. Abu Dhabi (1,186 thousand people, or 39% of the population in 2000), Dubai (913 thousand inhabitants, or 28%), Sharjah (520 thousand), Ajman (174 thousand), Ras al- Khaima (171 thousand), Umm al-Qaiwain (46 thousand), Fujairah (98 thousand). As a result of immigration, there are serious imbalances in the gender structure of the population. Women now make up approximately 33% of the population, as many workers choose to come to the UAE without their families. In the 1990s, the natural population movement was characterized by high fertility and low mortality. The average annual population growth in 1990–1995 was 5.3%, in 2003 – 1.57% (with a birth rate of 18.48 and a death rate of 4.02 per 1000 people). The average life expectancy is 74 years (72 years for men, 77 years for women).

Ethnic groups.

About 80% of the population are from other countries. In 2000, ethnic Arabs made up 48.1% of the total population (UAE Arabs 12.2%, Bedouins 9.4%, Egyptian Arabs 6.2%, Omani Arabs 4.1%, Saudi Arabs 4% ), South Asians - 35.7%, Iranians - 5%, Filipinos - 3.4%, Europeans - 2.4%, others - 5.4%. The number of UAE citizens, according to various estimates, has not exceeded 25% of the population in recent decades. At the same time, the most numerous ethnic groups are represented (as of 2003) by people from India (about 30%, or 1.2 million) and Pakistan (about 20%).

Work force.

The economically active population is 1.6 million people. (2000), of which 73.9% are foreign labor (2002). About 78% are employed in the service sector, 15% in industry, 7% in agriculture (2000). In general, since the late 1990s there has been a downward trend in the number of people employed in industry and agriculture. Foreign workers from India and Pakistan play the most significant role in the local economy. Since 2002, the government has been taking measures to “Emiratize the workforce” (it should be noted that very few local residents work in the industrial sector). As part of personnel reforms, up to 90% of the workforce is expected to be staffed by UAE nationals. government agencies, 80% - economic and financial organizations, 60% - justice bodies. At the same time, the struggle to limit the influx of foreign labor is intensifying. In 1996, as part of an amnesty declared for illegal immigrants and foreign citizens With expired visas and documents, 150 thousand people left the country; during the amnesty in 2003, another approx. took advantage of it. 80 thousand people Unemployment in 1996 reached 2.6%.

Urbanization.

Most of the population is concentrated on the coast and in oases. City dwellers make up 84% of the country's population (1996). In the interior desert regions there is a very rare nomadic, semi-nomadic and sedentary indigenous Arab population (Emirati Arabs, Bedouins), preserving the tribal division. The largest tribes among nomads and semi-nomads are the Beni-Kitab, among the settled population - Avamir, Beni Khadzhir, Beni Mura, Beniyaz, Davasir, Kavasim, Menasir, Naim, Nami, Shamis. Largest cities: Dubai (710 thousand), Abu Dhabi (928 thousand), Sharjah (325 thousand), Al Ain (240 thousand), Ajman (120 thousand), Ras al-Khaimah (80 thousand .). Average density – 38 people/sq. km (2003); The average density in the emirates is: in Abu Dhabi – 12.7 people/sq. km, Umm al-Quwain – 45.1 people/sq. km, Al Fujairah – 58.7 people/sq. km, Ras al-Khaimah – 84.9 people/sq. km, Sharjah – 154 people/sq. km, Dubai – 172.8 people/sq. km, Ajman – 456.9 people/sq. km (as of 1996).

Language.

The official language is Arabic (native only for 40% of the population). The dialect of local residents is as close as possible to classical Arabic, with small inclusions of Bedouin words and expressions. The most common languages ​​spoken in immigrant communities are Hindi and Urdu, along with Malay (13%), Balochi (8%), Pashto (6%), Farsi (5%), Telugu (5%), Somali (4%), Bengali (3%). Most residents speak spoken English.

Religion.

The state religion is Islam, mainly of the Sunni persuasion. Muslims make up 96% of believers (about 16% of the population are Shiites, living mainly in Dubai); Christians, Hindus, etc. - approx. 4% (1995). According to the laws, the spread of other religions and the conversion of Muslims to other faiths is prohibited, which is punishable by a prison term of 5 to 10 years. The Muslim (lunar Hijri) and Gregorian calendars are used.

POLITICAL SYSTEM

Federal authorities.

The UAE is a federal state. Each of the emirates included in the federation is an absolute monarchy and retains significant independence. The federal authorities consist of: the Federal Supreme Council, the head of state and his deputy, the Council of Ministers, the Federal National Assembly, the Supreme Federal Court.

According to the constitution of 1971 (as amended in 1976; provisional until 1996), the highest body of government is the Federal Supreme Council (FSC), consisting of the rulers of the seven emirates. The Council meets 4 times a year and has broad powers. Its exclusive jurisdiction is the ratification of international treaties and agreements; introduction and lifting of a state of emergency; declaration of war; appointment of the chairman and members of the Supreme Federal Court. Along with this, the Supreme Council determines general federal policy and exercises supreme control over the affairs of the federation; approves federal legislation; appointment of the President, Vice-President, Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Chairman of the Supreme Court and its members and acceptance of the resignation of each of them. For all decisions taken, except for procedural issues, a majority of 5 votes is required in the Supreme Council, subject to the consent of the rulers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai, who have the right of veto.

Every 5 years, the Supreme Council elects the head of the federation and his deputy - the president and vice-president - from among its members. The Constitution gives the head of state broad legislative and executive rights. Exercising executive power through ministers, the president at the same time presides over meetings of the FVS and has the right to veto any of its decisions. He can issue decrees and acts on any issues other than those within the exclusive competence of the FVS; appoint and dismiss the prime minister, his deputy and the cabinet of ministers. The head of state has the right (with the consent of the Supreme Council) to dissolve the national assembly. He issues federal laws and controls the implementation of federal laws, decrees and acts by the Council of Ministers and individual ministers; approves death sentences, and also has the power of pardon and commutation of sentences.

The permanent president of the UAE (since 1971) is the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, and the vice-president (since October 8, 1990) is the Emir of Dubai, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum (the last elections took place on December 2, 2001).

Executive branch belongs to the Council of Ministers (consists of 21 ministers and one deputy prime minister), appointed by the head of state. The Council of Ministers directly manages all internal and external affairs of the federation under the supervision of the head of state and the Federal Supreme Assembly. The Council of Ministers can make laws in all areas of ordinary jurisdiction, except for matters relating to the ratification of international treaties and agreements, the introduction or lifting of martial law, declaration of war, etc.

Since 1990, the post of prime minister has been held by the ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, and the first deputy prime minister is Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan.

Role advisory body belongs to the unicameral Federal National Assembly (FNC, Majlis al-Ittihad al-Watani). It consists of 40 representatives appointed by the rulers of the emirates for 2 years: 8 deputies each from Abu Dhabi and Dubai (with veto power), 6 each from Sharjah and Ras al-Khaimah, 4 each from Ajman, Umm Al -Qaiwaina and Fujairah. There is no electoral legislation; each emirate independently determines the method of electing deputies to parliament. From among its members, the Federal Tax Service elects the presidium and the chairman of the National Assembly. Currently, the chairman of the Federal Tax Service is a deputy from the emirate of Abu Dhabi, Al-Haj Abdullah Al Mohairabi.

The National Assembly has not only legislative power, but even legislative initiative. The Federal Tax Service only has the right to consider bills prepared by the Council of Ministers, propose amendments to them and even reject them, but the decisions of the meeting have no legal force. It has the right to discuss any issues, provided that the Council of Ministers does not consider the discussion of this issue to be contrary to the highest interests of the federal state. In addition, the National Assembly can make recommendations, which are also non-binding and can be rejected by the Council of Ministers.

The Constitution guarantees independence judiciary. The federal court system has existed since 1971; All emirates joined it, with the exception of Dubai and Ras al-Khaimah. All emirates have secular and Islamic (Sharia) laws for civil, criminal and supreme courts. The highest body of the judiciary is the Federal Supreme Court (consists of 6 members), whose judges are appointed by the president.

Local authorities.

In parallel to the federal institutions, each of the emirates has its own governing bodies.

The emirates are headed by hereditary monarchs (sheikhs or emirs). Power usually passes through the male line to the ruler's eldest son, but the ruler can appoint another senior relative from a given dynasty as heir. Each ruler has the highest legislative and executive powers and directly conducts all internal and external affairs that are not within the competence of the federal authorities.

The largest and most populous emirate, Abu Dhabi, has its own government, which is formed on the same principles as the federal one, and is headed by Crown Prince Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed al Nahyan.

Advisory functions are vested in the National Consultative Council, which has the same powers as the Federal National Assembly. It consists of 60 members representing the main tribes and influential families of the emirate.

Various administrative functions in all emirates are carried out by many local departments (police and security, public works, health care, education, water and electricity, finance, customs, etc.). Some of the departments are subordinated federal ministries. The most extensive administrative system has been created in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. It covers almost all spheres of life in these emirates.

There is no official administrative-territorial division in the emirates. Abu Dhabi alone is administratively divided into three regions. Along with this, Abu Dhabi has a system of representatives of the ruler. Currently, there are five such representatives: in the Eastern and Western regions, on Das Island, where an important oil terminal is located, etc.

Currently, there are municipalities in all the capitals of the emirates, as well as in the cities of Al Ain (Abu Dhabi), For Fakkan and Kalba (Sharjah). All municipalities are headed by members of the ruling dynasties. In the capitals of Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ras al-Khaimah and Fujairah, municipal councils have been established within the municipalities, including various departments. Their members are also appointed by the rulers. The functions of municipalities include issues of local government (organization of water and electricity supply, street improvement, etc.).

In small and remote settlements, the ruler and government of each emirate may appoint a local representative, an emir or wali, through whom residents can make their own requests to the government. In most cases, local tribal leaders are appointed as local representatives of the emir.

Political parties.

There is no organized opposition, the activities of political parties and trade unions are prohibited. The majority of the non-Emirati Arab population has neither civil nor political rights. Organizations such as Human Rights Watch are trying to convince the government of the need for legislative reforms.

Foreign policy.

The UAE is a member of the UN, the League of Arab States, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of the Islamic Conference, etc. Since its formation, the UAE has officially entered the group of non-aligned countries and acted in it from a position of “absolute neutrality”, which allowed them to maintain “equidistance” from the West and the East . In matters of Middle East settlement, the UAE advocates the complete withdrawal of Israeli troops from all occupied Arab territories. They also demand that all legitimate rights of the Arab people of Palestine be ensured, incl. his right to create his own state. Regarding the Iran-Iraq War, the UAE supported Iraq, providing it with material and moral assistance, while at the same time maintaining economic ties with Iran. Participation in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is of great importance, in which the UAE sees an effective mechanism for ensuring regional stability and cooperation.

Territorial disputes.

A border agreement was signed with Oman in 1999, but the final definition of the border between the two countries was postponed until 2002. Parts of the border between the emirates of Ras al-Khaimah and Sharjah, including the Musandam Peninsula, remain uncertain. The status of the UAE's border with Saudi Arabia has not been definitively established (details of the 1974 and 1977 agreements have not been made public). The conflict with Iran continues over the islands of Abu Musa, Greater and Lesser Tunb, occupied by Iranian troops in November 1971. In 2000, Tehran declared the islands an integral part of its territory, and the issue about them closed.

Armed forces.

The United Armed Forces of the UAE were created in 1976, but in 1978 the armed forces of Dubai and Ras al-Khaimah left their composition (the latter subsequently returned back). Dubai still retains significant independence in the military field.

The national armed forces consist of the ground forces, air force and navy. The Supreme Commander-in-Chief is the head of state; direct leadership of the armed forces is exercised by the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff. The Ministry of Defense is located in Dubai, the General Staff is in Abu Dhabi. UAE Minister of Defense - Crown Prince of Dubai Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum.

Total number armed forces is about approx. 65 thousand people (2000). Ground troops(59 thousand people, including 12–15 thousand of the Emirate of Dubai) have 2 armored tanks, 2 motorized infantry, 2 infantry, artillery brigades, 2 combined brigades (Dubai) and a royal guard brigade. It is armed with 487 tanks, 620 armored personnel carriers, 615 infantry fighting vehicles, as well as missiles and artillery installations. The Air Force (4 thousand people) includes 10 air squadrons, is armed with 108 combat aircraft, 42 helicopters and up to 80 military transport aircraft and helicopters. The Navy (2.4 thousand people, including 200 officers) consists of units of combat and auxiliary ships. They are armed with 27 ships. The main naval bases are Dalma, Mina Zayed (Abu Dhabi), Mina Khalid, Khor Fakan, Tauwella (Sharjah). Recruitment is carried out on the principle of voluntary recruitment, with the number of foreign volunteers reaching 30% of the total number of armed forces.

In addition to the regular armed forces, there are also coast guards and maritime police - 1,200 people. (including 110 officers). Internal security and police functions are carried out by the Federal Police Force (approx. 6 thousand people) and the National Guard (approx. 4 thousand people). Each emirate has its own National Guard.

The UAE purchases the most modern weapons, mostly Western-made; in the 1990s, a number of large contracts were concluded with Russia. In March 2000, one of the largest arms purchase transactions in world history took place: the UAE purchased 80 F-16 jet fighters from Lockheed Martin for $8 million. The UAE's defense spending remains among the highest in the Gulf region. All R. In the 1990s they reached $2 billion, in 1999 – 3.8 billion, in 2000 – 3.9 billion, in 2002 – St. 4 billion

ECONOMY

The UAE has an open economy with a high per capita income and a significant annual surplus. Since 1973, the UAE has transformed from a poor region of small desert principalities into a modern state with a high standard of living. The largest of the emirates, Abu Dhabi, accounts for 90% of oil and gas production and 60% of the UAE's GDP. Due to smaller oil and gas reserves, Dubai has become a trade, commercial and transport hub. Sharjah's main focus is on light industry and the development of port communications. The remaining emirates (known as the northern emirates) are considered poorer than the others and together account for only 6.6% of GDP (1996). In 2002, the UAE's GDP reached $53 billion. Average annual income per capita increased from $9,635 (1996) to $22 thousand (2002).

The UAE leadership plans to further diversify the economy, which today is mainly focused on oil. Data analysis shows that the share of non-oil industries in GDP increased from 36.73% in 1980 to 77.64% in 1998, while the share of the manufacturing sector increased from 3.76% in 1980 to 12.4% in 1998. And yet the share of oil in the country's GDP remains quite high.

Oil and gas.

The UAE has huge oil reserves (97.8 billion barrels, or 10% of world reserves). At the current level of production, oil and gas reserves should last until the beginning of the 22nd century. The country's wealth is based on oil and gas exports (approx. 33% of GDP) and depends on fluctuations in the prices of these products. Oil production on the shelf off the coast of Abu Dhabi has been carried out since 1962, on the mainland of Abu Dhabi - since 1963. In 1995, the UAE produced an average of 290 thousand tons per day, with Abu Dhabi accounting for 83%, Dubai - 15%, Sharjah - 2%. Abu Dhabi ranks third in terms of oil production in the Middle East (after Saudi Arabia and Iran). In Dubai, the main business center of the UAE, the economic boom associated with oil production began even before it was produced (1969). Small amounts of oil are also produced in Sharjah and Ras al-Khaimah. UAE oil production quotas are set by the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), but the UAE has not always adhered to these limits. For example, in 1990, during the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, oil production in the country doubled the quota. The UAE also has rich natural gas deposits. Its reserves are approx. 5.3 billion cubic meters m (3.8% of world reserves), according to this indicator the UAE ranks third in the Middle East.

Industry.

Other important sectors of the economy, in addition to oil and gas production, are manufacturing, oil refining, shipbuilding and ship repair. In addition to petroleum products, the country produces steel, aluminum, fertilizers, cement, plastics, machine tools and clothing, and handicrafts. Large gas processing plants are located in Ruwais, Jebel Ali, Das Island, and Sharjah. The building materials industry is developing. 9 cement factories release approx. 5 million tons of cement per year. There is an aluminum plant with a capacity of 240 thousand tons per year.

The number of enterprises with more than 10 employees has almost tripled over 10 years (from 1990 to 1999): from 705 to 1859. Further examination of the statistics shows that industrial production is concentrated in cities: Dubai (678 out of 1859 enterprises ), Sharjah (581), Ajman and Abu Dhabi. The country's largest plants and factories operate in the capital.

Traditional handicrafts are developed - making carpets, woolen fabrics, minting gold and silver products, mining pearls and corals.

The industry accounts for approx. 46% of GDP (2000). In 2000, industrial production increased by 4%.

Agriculture.

The UAE is a semi-arid country with little rainfall. Agriculture provides only 3% of GDP and employs 7% of the working population (2000). Main industries Agriculture: fishing, agriculture and nomadic cattle breeding. The total area of ​​cultivated land is 54.5 thousand hectares (1994). The main areas of agricultural development are the eastern part of Ras al-Khaimah and Abu Dhabi, the north-east of Sharjah, and part of the coast of the Gulf of Oman. The main crops grown are dates and vegetables. Efforts are being made to achieve self-sufficiency in grains, but this is hampered by a lack of fresh water. Poultry and cattle are raised. Nomads raise sheep, goats and camels. Basic food needs are met through imports.

Transport.

Thanks to large revenues from oil exports, the transport network was significantly improved. Not in the UAE railways, domestic transportation is mainly provided by road transport. All emirates are connected by four-lane highways. The main highway runs from Ash Sham through all the main coastal cities to Qatar and Saudi Arabia. The total length of roads is 2,000 km, incl. 1,800 km built after 1993. Dubai is the main regional and international center maritime and air traffic. Most overseas transport is carried out by sea. Own sea ​​transport poorly developed. The merchant fleet includes 56 ships (2002). A significant amount of cargo is transported on foreign ships. The most important ports of the UAE are Jabal Api (since 1988) and Port Rashid (in Dubai), Zayed (in Abu Dhabi), Al Fujairah. In the emirate of Dubai there is the world's largest dry dock, designed to repair tankers with a displacement of up to 1 million tons. There are 6 international airports - in Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ras al-Khaimah, Al Ain, Al Fujairah. Services international airport About 11 million people used Dubai in 1999. There are a total of 40 airports for various purposes in the country (1999). The length of oil pipelines is 830 km, gas pipelines are 870 km.

Free economic zones.

In order to attract foreign capital, a free economic zone (FEZ) was created in the emirate of Dubai in 1985 near the port of Jebel Ali, in which 2,300 companies operate, 1/4 of which are small and medium-sized industrial companies. Main specialization: trade operations (74%), industry (22%), services (4%). The successful experiment in Jebel Ali prompted UAE governments to create new free economic zones. There are currently nine free economic zones in the UAE, more than in any other Arab country. According to available data, the percentage of industrial projects to the total number of projects implemented in SEZs is: in Sharjah - 17.7%, Fujairah - 39.8%, Ajman - 41.3%, Umm al-Quwain - 100%.

Trade.

The UAE's exports are mainly represented by oil and petroleum products (45%). Total exports increased from 22.6 billion dollars (1993) to 44.9 billion (2002). In addition to oil, important export items are liquefied gas, aluminum, fertilizers, cement, fresh and dried fish, dates, and pearls. Main exporting countries: Japan (29.1%), South Korea(10.2%), India (5.4%), Oman (3.7%), Singapore (3.1%), Iran (2.2%) (as of 2001). UAE imports machinery and equipment, vehicles, electronic equipment and household appliances, finished products, food, chemicals, synthetic materials, metal products. The volume of imports in 1999 was $27.5 billion, in 2002 – $30.8 billion. Main trading partners: USA (6.7%), Germany (6.6%), Japan (6.5%) , France (6.3%), China (6.1%), Great Britain (5.9%), South Korea (5.5%) (as of 2001). Trading firms in the UAE, particularly in the Emirate of Dubai, are widely involved in re-export trade.

National monetary unit - dirham (AED) = 100 fils (since May 1973).

SOCIETY

Health and Social Security.

The establishment of the healthcare system dates back to 1943, when the first hospital was opened in Dubai. In 1971, a network of medical facilities existed in Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ras Al Khaimah and Dibba. Since the formation of the UAE, the healthcare system has been characterized by rapid growth but lack of coordination. By the early 1990s, cooperation between the emirates in the field of healthcare increased, but oil companies and the armed forces still maintain their own medical facilities. The health care system offers free care to all citizens; in 1982, due to a decrease in oil export revenues, the government introduced paid services for non-citizens, except in emergency cases. In 1995, the health care system employed 15,361 employees, incl. OK. 3 thousand UAE citizens; doctors - 3803, incl. 1839 in the private sector. In 1995, there were 1,227 people for every doctor, and 454 people for every nurse. In 1986 there were 40 hospitals (with 3,900 beds) and 119 clinics in the country, in 1995 there were 51 hospitals (with 6,357 beds). During the implementation of health care reforms, infant mortality decreased from 145 per 1,000 births in 1960 to 15.58 in 2000. In 1985, health workers attended 96% of births. Life expectancy increased from 53 years in 1960 to 74.75 years in 2003. The main causes of death recorded in Abu Dhabi in 1989 per 100,000 population were: accidents and poisoning - 43.7%; cardiovascular diseases – 34.3%; cancer – 13.7%; respiratory tract diseases – 8.1%. As of December 1990, there were 8 cases of HIV infection.

There is a extensive network social protection, which includes family centers aimed at solving domestic problems and training women in housekeeping skills. Psychological assistance is available for disadvantaged youth; provision of assistance to victims of epidemics and disasters is provided. Widows, orphans, the elderly, the disabled and others unable to support themselves receive social benefits. In 1975, almost 24 thousand citizens received 87.7 million dirhams as part of social assistance; in 1982, about 121,000 people received 275 million dirhams. Other social benefits provided to UAE citizens: free housing and subsidies for apartment improvement. However, the Ministry of Public Works and Housing reported in 1992 that 70% of the 15,000 low-income housing units built by the government were uninhabitable.

Education.

The first private schools in Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Sharjah were opened in the early 1900s. In sheikhdoms and sultanates, small study groups functioned at mosques. In the 1920s and 1930s, due to the economic crisis, most schools closed. Secular primary schools began to appear in the 1950s. The first British school with Arab teachers was opened in Sharjah in 1953, with 450 boys aged 6 to 17 years. Soon the first primary school for girls was established in Sharjah. The British government opened schools in Abu Dhabi, Ras al-Khaimah and Khawr Fakkan, founded an agricultural school in Ras al-Khaimah in 1955 and a technical school in Sharjah in 1958. Since 1958, large funds for the construction of schools and salaries for teachers have been allocated by Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Egypt. The first indigenous education system was created in Abu Dhabi in the early 1960s. By the 1964–1965 school year there were 6 schools, where 390 boys and 138 girls studied. There were 31 schools in other emirates, incl. 12 schools for girls.

After the creation of the UAE, education problems became one of the priorities in government programs. During the period 1971–1978, spending on education ranked second in the federal budget after defense. The law provides for compulsory secondary education for UAE nationals. The education system includes: preschool institutions for children from 4 to 6 years old, primary schools (6 years of study), junior high schools (3 years of study) and complete secondary schools (3 years of study). Training is separate, in some primary schools joint training is carried out. IN rural areas Education in primary schools lasts no more than 2–3 years. In the 1973–1974 academic year, there were about 140 schools, with about 50 thousand students, incl. 32 thousand in primary schools, 14 thousand in junior high schools, 3 thousand in high schools. In the 1990–1991 academic year, there were about 760 schools, with about 338 thousand students, incl. 49 thousand in preschools, 227 thousand in primary schools and 111 thousand in secondary schools. In the 1995–1996 academic year, there were 1,132 schools in the country, with 422 thousand students (1994–1995). A third of students attended private or religious schools.

Vocational training is provided at commercial and agricultural schools, as well as at oil industry training centers in Abu Dhabi. In the 1996–1997 academic year, 1925 people studied in 7 vocational schools and centers.

Higher education, both primary and secondary, is free for all UAE citizens. Main higher education institutions: United Arab Emirates University in Al Ain (founded in 1977; over 15 thousand students); Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi (founded 1988), Al Ain (founded 1988), Dubai (founded 1989) and Ras Al Khaimah (founded 1989); Etisalat College of Engineering, Sharjah; Ajman University of Science and Technology (founded in 1988); University of Sharjah (founded 1997); American University of Sharjah (founded 1997); Al Bayan University (founded in 1997; first private university in Abu Dhabi); Dubai aviation college(founded in 1991–1992). Many UAE citizens receive higher education in the USA, Great Britain and other Arab countries.

In addition to educational institutions for children and adolescents, there is a network of educational institutions for adults who have not received appropriate education. The number of adult education centers increased from 54 (in 1972) to 139 (in 1996–1997), where 18 thousand students studied. In 1993, the number of illiterate people fell to 16.8%, compared to 79% in 1968. According to UN estimates, the literate population in 2003 was 77.9% (76.1% men, 81.7% women).

Press, radio, television, Internet.

The media operating in the country, subject to loyalty to the ruling dynasties and the government, enjoy relative freedom. There are 5 daily newspapers in Arabic in the country: Akhbar Dubai (since 1965), Al-Bayan (Dubai, since 1980, circulation 35 thousand), Al-Wahda (Abu Dhabi, since 1973, circulation 15 thousand), “Al-Ittihad” (Abu Dhabi, since 1972, circulation 58 thousand), “Al-Khalij” (in the Principality of Sharjah, since 1970, circulation 58 thousand); 4 newspapers per English language: Gulf News (Abu Dhabi, circulation 24.5 thousand), Recorder (Abu Dhabi and Sharjah), Trade and Industry (Abu Dhabi, since 1975, circulation 9 thousand), Emirates News (Abu Dhabi). The UAE News Agency (UAE, founded in 1976) is located in Abu Dhabi. The Government Radio and Television Service is located in Dubai. Radio broadcasting from sir. 1960s, currently operates 22 radio stations (1998). Television since 1968, there are 15 television stations (1997). The only Internet Provider is Etisalat. The number of Internet users is more than 300 thousand (as of 2002).

STORY

From ancient times to the beginning of modern times.

According to the latest archaeological finds, the first traces of human presence in this region date back to 7 thousand BC. In 5 thousand BC. Agriculture became widespread among the peoples inhabiting these areas. In 4 thousand BC. the gulf coast becomes an important trading point along the route sea ​​vessels between the Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia and ancient India. In 3 thousand BC. In the east of the Arabian Peninsula, the ancient state of Dilmun arose, which existed until 2–1 thousand BC. The creation of the first Phoenician settlements and trading posts on the coast, which contributed to the development of navigation and the formation of trade centers and colonies, dates back to the same period. In the 6th century. BC. The territory of modern UAE came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty. In the 4th century. BC. As a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek trading colonies arose here. Starting from the 3rd century. BC. the territory of the southeastern coast found itself in the sphere of influence of the Parthian kingdom. This period also includes the migration of Arab tribes from the south and from the center of the Arabian Peninsula to the Persian Gulf region. After the fall of the Parthian kingdom in the 3rd–6th centuries. AD the peoples inhabiting the coast became part of the Sassanid state; Persian agricultural colonies were created in the country, Judaism and Christianity became widespread among the local population; existed Christian churches and monasteries. In the 7th century this territory was included in the Arab Caliphate; such big cities, like Dubai, Sharjah, Fujairah; Islam became the dominant religion. In the end 7th century the Bay area became part of the Umayyad Caliphate. In the middle of the 8th century. the population of the country (in particular, the principalities of Sharjah and Dubai) participated in the uprising of the Omani tribes against the governor of the Umayyad Caliph; as a result, in the middle of the 8th–9th centuries. The principalities (emirates) were ruled by virtually independent rulers. At the end of the 9th century. they turned into tributaries of the Baghdat Caliphate. In the 10th century individual principalities became part of the state of the Qarmatians, a Muslim Shia sect of the Ismailis, which existed until the end of the 11th century. In the beginning. 13th century most local rulers (in particular, Umm al-Qaiwain, Ras al-Khaimah and Fujairah) found themselves in vassal dependence on the Hormuz state.

From the beginning of the 16th century to the middle of the 19th century.

After the opening of the sea route to India (1498), the Persian Gulf region became the most important point of European influence in the region. From the beginning of the 16th century. and until the middle of the 17th century. part of the coast of the Persian and Hormuz Gulfs was under the rule of the Portuguese, who established a monopoly on all trade between Far East, India and Southeast Asia. Portugal's main rival was Ottoman Empire, which incited Arab tribes to revolt against the Portuguese invaders. However, the Persian Gulf soon became the object of a struggle between England, France, the Netherlands, Persia and Oman. After ousting the Portuguese in the middle. 17th century On the territory of modern UAE and Oman, the state of Yaruba was founded, which extended its influence to the northeastern and West Coast Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.

In the 2nd half. 18th century control of the southeastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz was seized by the al-Qawasim tribal confederation; their power extended to the sheikhdoms of Ras al-Khaimah and Sharjah, the Musandam Peninsula, as well as the southwestern coast of Iran and some islands in the Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz. Having a fairly strong fleet, the al-Qawasim established complete maritime control over navigation.

In the 2nd half of the 18th century. Oman, especially its coastal regions, became the object of struggle, first between Great Britain (represented by the East India Company) and France, and then the Wahhabi rulers of Central Arabia. In 1798, an agreement was signed between representatives of the East India Company and the Sultan of Muscat, who also sought to establish control over this part of Arabia, marking the beginning of British expansion. British ships, under the slogan of “free navigation,” tried to monopolize cargo flows between the ports of the Persian Gulf and deprive local residents of their main source of livelihood. This led to conflicts between the East India Company and the local Arab population (the British called them pirates, and therefore the entire area received the name “Pirate Coast”). The main opponent of the East India Company was the al-Qawasim, who at that moment fell under the influence of Wahhabism. England used attacks by al-Qawasim on individual military and commercial ships as a pretext to start a war.

In 1801, under the slogan of the fight against piracy and the slave trade, warships of the East India Company blocked the coast of the Persian Gulf and attacked Arab merchant ships. In 1800–1803 and 1805–1806, the British and their ally, the Sultan of Muscat, fought with varying degrees of success against the tribes of the Pirate Coast.

In 1806, the East India Company imposed a treaty on the al-Qawasim sheikhs, according to which the latter were obliged to respect the flag and property of the company. However, the agreement was not actually respected.

In 1809, the military forces of the East India Company resumed hostilities, destroying a significant part of the Wahhabi fleet (more than 100 ships) and shelling the fortress of Ras al-Khaimah from the sea. However, already in 1814, the Wahhabis again seized control of the sea routes and for the next two years blocked the approaches to the Persian Gulf.

Taking advantage of the defeat of the Wahhabis on land, the British sent a new squadron to the “Pirate Coast” in 1818 with the goal of putting an end to piracy once and for all. On December 9, 1819, they stormed the fortress of Ras al-Khaimah. All Arab-owned ships, including fishing boats, were burned. The defeat forced the emirs and sheikhs of 9 Arab principalities to sign the so-called. “General Treaty of Peace” (January 8 – March 15, 1820), which proclaimed “freedom of navigation” in the Persian Gulf and committed to stopping pirate attacks on English ships, as well as the practice of slavery and the slave trade. England received the right of unlimited domination in the waters of the Persian and Gulf of Oman; it was recognized as having the right to supervise navigation and control the ships of local rulers. In fact, this agreement marked the beginning of the establishment of English control over this territory and the final division of Oman into 3 parts - the Imamate of Oman, the Sultanate of Muscat and the “Pirate Coast”.

In 1821, the fleet of England and Muscat inflicted another defeat on the sheikhs of the Persian Gulf who did not join General Peace Treaty.

Despite the agreement, the sheikhs continued to attack each other. Seeking to control dynastic and tribal struggles, the British imposed a new treaty on the coastal tribes. In 1835, the so-called agreement was signed between representatives of the East India Company and local rulers. First maritime agreement on a truce for six months (this agreement was subsequently extended annually) for the pearl fishing season, which then constituted the main source of income for the sheikhdoms.

In 1838, after several unsuccessful attempts to end the slave trade in the area, the British decided to take full control of the Pirate Coast, Oman, Muscat, Bahrain and Kuwait and establish a permanent presence of their warships in the Gulf. In 1839, an agreement was concluded between Great Britain and Muscat on joint action against piracy and the slave trade, to which the sheikhdoms of the Pirate Coast were annexed in the same year.

In 1843, England imposed a new agreement on the rulers of the Pirate Coast, which extended the First Naval Agreement (1835) by 10 years. In accordance with it, the sheikhs were obliged to obey any decisions of representatives of the East India Company acting on behalf of the British authorities. Failure to comply or violation of them was considered a violation of the First Naval Agreement.

In 1847, in addition to the agreement of 1835, a treaty was signed that significantly expanded the prerogatives of Great Britain in the Persian Gulf. This treaty gave the East India Company the right to search merchant ships suspected of piracy and slave trading. It placed responsibility for violating the ban on the slave trade on the sheikhs who signed the treaty, and also granted the right to representatives of the East India Company to act as arbitrators in conflicts between local rulers. Economically, the agreement gave Great Britain a number of benefits and the right to exploit the pearl shoals of Bahrain and the “Pirate Coast”.

Negotiated Oman.

With the defeat of the Wahhabis, who tried to regain control of the Persian Gulf in 1851–1852, England imposed a new agreement on the rulers of the emirates. In May 1853, the sheikhs of Ras al-Khaimah, Umm al-Qaiwain, Ajman, Dubai and Abu Dhabi signed the Treaty of Permanent Maritime Peace. In accordance with it, the “Pirate Coast” was renamed “Trucial Oman”, or “Treaty Coast”. England took upon itself the responsibility to mediate in the settlement of land disputes, as well as to protect the emirates from attacks by a third party. The representative of the East India Company received the official right to punish all violators of the treaty, including sheikhs.

According to the agreement of 1869, the sheikhs of Treaty Oman pledged not to independently conclude agreements with third countries, not to grant them any privileges and not to lease the territories of their emirates without the consent of England.

In 1892, several more agreements were signed, leading to the establishment of a full English protectorate over Trucial Oman. In 1898, in addition to this agreement, another treaty was signed, prohibiting the sheikhs of Treaty Oman from buying or selling weapons. British military bases were created on the territory of the sheikhdoms (in particular, in Sharjah, Dubai and Abu Dhabi). Political power was exercised by the British liaison officer for the Persian Gulf (with headquarters in Sharjah), reporting to the political resident, first in Bushehr (Iran), then in Bahrain.

At the beginning of the 20th century. the number of sheikhdoms changed. In September 1900, Ras al-Khaimah became part of Sharjah (from 1921 again an independent sheikhdom), at the same time, in 1902, Al-Fujairah separated from Sharjah (recognized in March 1952) and in 1903 - Kalba (recognized in 1936, in 1952 reincorporated into Sharjah).

The main income for the Arab population during this period continued to come from the pearl trade. In 1911, the British entered into an agreement obliging the rulers of the sheikhdoms not to grant concessions for pearl and sponge fishing in their waters to anyone other than England. By the beginning of the First World War, under the Anglo-Turkish Convention of 1913, England received the exclusive right to Treaty Oman, and in 1922 the British established their control over the right of the sheikhs to grant concessions for oil exploration and production to anyone.

Until the early 1930s, British connections with the coast remained extremely limited. The expansion of the Wahhabi rulers of Najd further undermined Britain's position in the region. In the interior, where the British had always had nominal power, the tribes tended to unite with the Wahhabis of Central Arabia. Only in 1932 did British Airlines need the territory of Treaty Oman to build intermediate airports (a rest home for passengers and crew in Sharjah) on the route between London and India.

In the late 1920s, an economic crisis erupted on the coast, caused by the appearance of Japanese cultured pearls on the world market.

The discovery of oil changed the strategic and economic importance of this remote corner of the British Empire. Fearing that the area might fall into the hands of competitors, the British urgently created the Petroleum Development of Trushill Coast company. In 1937, British oil companies received concessions for oil production and exploration in Dubai and Sharjah, in 1938 - in Ras al-Khaimah and Kalba, in 1939 - in Abu Dhabi and Ajman.

Taking into account the increased weight of Treaty Oman in the region, London began to develop a plan to unite the sheikhdoms under its control into a federal Arab state, which would also include Iraq, Transjordan and Palestine. England's plans seriously alarmed the population of the emirates. There, anti-feudal and anti-colonial protests became more frequent. In Sharjah, things escalated into open clashes, during which the airfield built by the British was destroyed. Tribes bordering Muscat and Oman took up arms to prevent the cartographic survey. In the end, London was forced to abandon the plan to create a federation.

In 1938–1939 there was an unsuccessful attempt at political reforms in Dubai. The ruling dynasty founded the Financial Council, consisting of local nobility, who, however, tried to remove her from power. A year later the Council was dissolved.

During the Second World War, the sheikhdoms of Treaty Oman adhered to a policy of neutrality; after the war, their status was elevated to emirates (principalities), and at the same time the first steps were taken to integrate the emirates into the federation. In 1945 and 1950–1951, several meetings of the rulers of the emirates took place, at which issues of unifying the police forces, customs administration, and the currency system were discussed. In 1951, local armed forces, the so-called, were created to protect the personnel of oil companies. “Scouts of Treaty Oman” (strength: 1,600 people, led by British officers). In 1952, the foundations of the future federation were laid with the creation of two institutions - the Council of the Treaty States, headed by a British political agent in Dubai, and the Foundation for the Development of the Treaty States.

At the same time, internal and external border conflicts continued, often caused by the economic interests of Western monopolies. In 1947–1949, clashes occurred between Abu Dhabi and Dubai.

The domestic political situation in the 1940s and 1950s was complicated by the rivalry between British and American oil companies. Until the mid-1950s, the most acute subject of dispute between ARAMCO, Iraq Petroleum Company and Royal Dutch Shell was the oil-bearing lands of the Al Buraimi oasis, claims to which have been claimed since the 19th century. presented by the rulers of Abu Dhabi, Saudi Arabia and Oman. In 1949, exploration parties of the American oil company ARAMCO, acting in the interests of Saudi Arabia, appeared here; in 1952, Saudi forces established their control over Buraimi. Only in October 1955, after the failure of negotiations, the armed forces of Oman and Abu Dhabi, supported by the British, again took possession of the oasis.

In 1953, Abu Dhabi granted an oil concession to an Anglo-French consortium. In 1958, large oil reserves were discovered here, in the desert town of Bab, and in 1962 its production and export began. In just a few years, the modest emirate turned into a great oil-producing state in the Middle East. In 1966, oil fields were discovered in Dubai, and in 1973 - in Sharjah and other emirates.

The discovery of oil caused an aggravation of the political situation in the country. In 1961–1963, an anti-imperialist movement developed in a number of emirates, supported by some representatives of the ruling circles. In 1962, the ruler of Sharjah gave a concession to an American oil company, which displeased official London. The ruler of Sharjah was followed by the Sheikh of Ras al-Khaimah. In October 1964, bypassing the British authorities, a commission of the League of Arab States (LAS), with the consent of the rulers of Ras al-Khaimah and Sharjah, visited a number of points of Treaty Oman. In response to these steps, the ruler of Sharjah, Sheikh Saqr III ibn Sultan al Qasimi (1925–1993), on the instructions of the British authorities, was arrested and declared deposed; An attempt was made on the life of the ruler of Ras al-Khaimah, Sheikh Saqr ibn Mohammed al Qasimi. In an effort to prevent further interference of the Arab League in the affairs of Treaty Oman, the British authorities in July 1965 held a meeting of 7 sheikhdom rulers in Dubai, at which it was decided to form an Economic Development Council, and also considered 15 major economic projects that were supposed to contribute to the development of these territories . However, the performances continued, capturing even the relatively prosperous Abu Dhabi in 1966. In response to this, on August 6, 1966, a bloodless coup was organized in Abu Dhabi; As a result of the decision of the sheikhs of the Nahyan clan, who removed the ruling emir Sheikh Shahbout, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan (the current head of the UAE) came to power.

Until mid-1967, attempts continued to create a federation with its subsequent annexation to the so-called. "Islamic Pact" (a bloc of countries led by Saudi Arabia).

Modern history of the UAE.

In 1968, the British government announced its intention to withdraw its troops from the region by the end of 1971 and transfer power to local rulers. In the face of difficult economic and international problems, the majority of the sheikhdoms spoke in favor of the creation of an independent federation of the sheikhdoms of Eastern and South-Eastern Arabia. Formally, the initiators of the unification were Sheikhs Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan (Abu Dhabi) and Rashid bin Said Al Maktoum (Dubai), who signed a corresponding agreement on February 18, 1968. On February 25, 1968, at a meeting in Dubai, the heads of nine British mandate emirates (the seven emirates of Trucial Oman, Qatar and Bahrain) for the first time discussed the possibility of creating a single federal state. On March 1, 1968, the creation (from March 30, 1968) of the Federation of the Arab Emirates (FAE) was announced. According to the agreement, which entered into force on March 30, 1968, the supreme authority of the Federation was determined by the Supreme Council, which included the rulers of all 9 emirates; the latter were to alternately hold the post of Chairman of the Council for a year. The creation of other bodies was postponed until the next meeting. However, these plans were not implemented due to contradictions that arose between the rulers about the place and role of their emirates in the newly created federation. As a result of the struggle of interests, two groups were formed in the new association, which were also influenced by neighboring states (Saudi Arabia, Iran and Kuwait). One of the groups included the rulers of the emirates of Abu Dhabi, Fujairah, Sharjah, Umm al-Qaiwain, Ajman and Bahrain. They were opposed by the rulers of Dubai, Ras al-Khaimah and Qatar. At the same time, the rulers of Qatar and Bahrain, having a more developed economy and surpassing the other emirates in population, refused to recognize the equality of all members of the federation. As a result of disagreements, the FAE actually disintegrated by the end of 1969, without having time to take final shape. An attempt to revive the federation project was made in March 1971, when the temporary creation of the Federation of Arab Emirates (Treaty Oman together with Qatar and Bahrain) was again announced. However, the unification did not happen. After the withdrawal of British troops in September 1971, Bahrain and Qatar declared themselves independent states.

After a meeting in Dubai on July 18, 1971, six of the seven emirates formed the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and signed an interim constitution. The seventh emirate, Ras al-Khaimah, refused to join, citing the other emirates' refusal to grant it veto power over national decisions and equal representation in the federal assembly. In addition, Ras al-Khaimah refused to cede the Greater and Lesser Tunb islands, rich in oil reserves, to Iran. Other emirates did not want to bind themselves to any obligation to Ras al-Khaimah in the event of its conflict with Iran.

Great Britain and a number of other Arab states rushed to recognize the formation of the UAE. However, Iran and Saudi Arabia refused to recognize the new state, having territorial claims to Abu Dhabi and Sharjah. For this reason, the official declaration of independence of the UAE, scheduled for August 1971, was postponed. As a result of subsequent negotiations with the participation of London, in November 1971 an agreement was reached between Iran and Sharjah, according to which part of the island of Abu Musa passed to Iran; Oil deposits in the coastal waters of the island were also subject to division.

On November 30, 1971, two days before the UAE declared independence, Iranian troops landed on the island of Abu Musa (completely annexed in 1992) and occupied strategically important islands The Greater and Lesser Tunbs, which belonged to Ras al-Khaimah. Iran's actions sparked protest in the Arab world; a number of countries filed complaints against Iran to the UN Security Council. Great Britain limited itself to expressing its disagreement with Iran's actions. On December 2, 1971, at a conference of seven emirates held in Dubai, the creation of the UAE was proclaimed. Only six of the seven emirates of Trucial Oman were included in the federal state. The Ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, was elected President of the UAE, and the Ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, was elected Vice President. The new president signed a treaty of friendship with Great Britain, which canceled all previous agreements concluded between the UAE member emirates and the British government. Abu Dhabi was chosen as the temporary capital. A few days later, the UAE was admitted to the Arab League and the United Nations. Having failed to achieve international support on the issue of the Greater and Lesser Tunb islands, Ras al-Khaimah also joined the UAE on February 11, 1972.

Only Saudi Arabia did not recognize the new state, making the solution to the Al-Buraimi issue a condition for its recognition. As a result of a new round of negotiations in August 1974, Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia entered into an agreement among themselves, according to which Saudi Arabia recognized the rights of Abu Dhabi and Oman to the oasis, and in turn received the territory of Sabha Bita in the southern part of Abu Dhabi, two small islet and the right to build a road and oil pipeline through Abu Dhabi to the Gulf coast.

Significant revenues from oil exports made it possible to finance most of the development programs and determined the conservative and generally pro-Western course of the UAE, as well as its close ties with Saudi Arabia. However, political life in the UAE was not without controversy. Since the creation of the UAE, competition for leadership in the federation has continued between Abu Dhabi (which advocated strengthening centralized federal power) and Dubai (which advocated maintaining significant independence for each emirate). In the first cabinet of ministers, formed in 1971, the sons of the Emir of Dubai played a key role, holding the posts of Prime Minister, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Defense, Economy, Finance and Industry. At the end of December 1973, in connection with the reorganization of the Council of Ministers, the son of the Emir of Abu Dhabi, Hamid bin Zayed al Nahyan, was announced as Deputy Prime Minister. By the end of the 1970s, supporters of integration, led by the ruler of Abu Dhabi, won another important victory, achieving the unification of the armed forces of the emirates under a single command (1976), and transferred the police, security, immigration and information authorities to the central government.

Throughout the 1970s, border disputes between the emirates and their neighbors continued. The ruler of Ras al-Khaimah continued to advocate for the emirate's separation from the federation. In 1978, the Ras al-Khaimah military made an unsuccessful attempt to capture disputed territory belonging to Oman. The fall of the Shah of Iran in 1979, the rise of Islamic fundamentalism and the Iran-Iraq War created further threats to the stability of the UAE. In May 1981, in response to emerging threats, the UAE became one of the six founding members of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Persian Gulf, which, against the backdrop of the Iran-Iraq war, turned into a military-political alliance.

During the Iran-Iraq War, the rulers of individual principalities supported Iraq, while others (Dubai, Sharjah and Umm al-Quwain) maintained friendly relations with Iran. The greatest degree of contradiction between the emirates reached in June 1987, when an attempted palace coup took place in Sharjah: Sheikh Sultan ibn Mohammed Al Qasimi was forced to abdicate the throne in favor of his brother, Abdulaziz Al Qasimi. The country's President Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan (Abu Dhabi) supported Abdel Aziz's claim to power, while Vice President and Prime Minister Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum (Dubai) declared his support for the Sultan. The conflict was resolved only after the Supreme Council of Rulers intervened in the dispute, restoring the powers of Sheikh Sultan and declaring the applicant crown prince.

In 1990, when Iraq invaded Kuwait, the UAE participated in the US-led multinational coalition of forces, contributing $6.5 billion and sending troops. After the end of the war, the US and British navies continued to use UAE ports.

The last decade of the 20th century. In general, it was distinguished by internal political and economic stability. An exception was the closure (on suspicion of financial fraud) in July 1991 of the International Trade and Credit Bank (MTCB), which belonged mostly to the ruling family of the emirate of Abu Dhabi. In December 1993, Abu Dhabi sued the executive management of MTKB for damages. In June 1994, 11 of 12 former MTKB executives accused of fraud were sentenced to prison in Abu Dhabi and ordered to pay compensation. After lengthy negotiations, in 1995, an agreement was reached with depositors and creditors. In June 1996, fraud charges were dropped against two MTKB managers after an appeal.

Since the Gulf War, the UAE has increased defense spending and expanded its international contacts and diplomatic relations. In 1994, an agreement on military cooperation was signed with the United States, and a year later with France. Along with Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, the UAE government recognized the Taliban regime in Afghanistan in 1997. In 1998, the UAE restored diplomatic relations with Iraq, interrupted due to the Gulf War (1991). Much attention was paid to the problems of resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict.

UAE in the 21st century

During the same period, the country took steps to resolve territorial problems. Thus, in 1999, during the visit of the Sultan of Oman to Abu Dhabi, border issues with Oman were resolved. In November 2000, negotiations took place with Qatar on the border. The exception remains the territorial dispute with Iran. At the end of 1992, Sharjah and Iran reached an agreement on the island of Abu Musa, which completely passed under the jurisdiction of Iran; all foreigners living on the islands, including UAE citizens, were required to obtain Iranian visas. In 1996, Iran further strengthened its position by starting construction of an airport on the island of Abu Musa and a power plant on the island of Greater Tunb. In 1997, the UAE protested Iranian military activity in the Persian Gulf. In November 1999, the Gulf Cooperation Council reiterated its support for the UAE in its dispute over the three islands. In 1999, a diplomatic conflict broke out between the UAE and Saudi Arabia due to Saudi Arabia's desire to normalize relations with Iran.

The degree of integration of the emirates has been a topic of constant debate. By the end of the 1990s, due to tactical differences in the policies pursued by Abu Dhabi and Dubai, the full integration of the country's armed forces did not take place. The integration of the emirates in many areas is hampered by the still existing rivalry between the leaders of Abu Dhabi and Dubai.

After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, the UAE government decided to sever diplomatic relations with the Taliban in Afghanistan, the accounts of 62 organizations and individuals suspected by the United States of financing terrorist movements were frozen, and measures were taken to tighten control over cash flows.

During the 2003 Iraq War, US troops were stationed in the UAE, and the country provided significant humanitarian assistance to Iraq after the official announcement of the cessation of hostilities.

On November 3, 2004, the country's president, Zayed ban Sultan, died. On November 3, 2004, the Federal Council of the United Arab Emirates elected the eldest son of Sheikh Zayed, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed al Nahyan, as the new president of the country. Fifty-six-year-old Sheikh Khalifa previously headed the Abu Dhabi Supreme Petroleum Council and is Deputy Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashed Al Maktoum served as vice president from December 3, 2001. On January 5, 2006, at the age of 62, he died during a visit to Australia.

Literature:

Yacoub Youssef Abdullah. United Arab Emirates. History of political and state development (19th century - early 70s of the 20th century). M., 1978
Isaev V.A., Ozoling V.V. Qatar. M., 1984
Bodyansky V.L. Eastern Arabia: history, geography, population, economy. M., 1986
Markaryan R.V., Mikhin V.L. United Arab Emirates.- In the book. Recent history Arab countries of Asia. 1917–1985. M., 1988
Egorin A.Z., Isaev V.A. United Arab Emirates. M., 1997



 

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