Basic information on geography. Geographical terms and concepts. Geographical definitions. Stormy and Azimba

The fascinating subject of geography is a scientific field that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means “description of the earth.” Below is a general definition of the term geography:

“Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies the physical features of the Earth and the environment, including the influence of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production.”

Scientists who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although cartographers of the ancient world were known as geographers, today this is a relatively distinct specialization. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas geographical research: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps surrounding area, and also explained the differences between people and natural landscapes in different places on Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the brightest Islamic minds. The Islamic Golden Age witnessed amazing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their innovative discoveries. New lands were explored and the first grid base for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also contributed instrumentally to the development of early geography. The compass, developed by the Chinese, was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. IN European world a new interest in geography arose. Marco Polo - Venetian merchant and traveler led this new era research. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main impetus for travel in those times. Europeans advanced in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and... The enormous potential of geography to shape the future was recognized human civilization and in the 18th century, it was introduced as a core discipline at university level. Based on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the flourishing of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and complex software radically changed science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in Earth space, as well as develop ways to solve problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification of geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physical geography

Defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

Geomorphology: deals with the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps to clarify various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also attempts to predict future changes in the physical characteristics of the Earth's appearance.
Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological studies.
Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all the water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine flora, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study of the chemical composition of sea waters and their effects on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. She explores the planet's rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the Earth's surface, through.
Soil Science: branch of science that studies Various types soils in their natural environment on the surface of the Earth. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (soil formation), composition, texture and classification of soils.
: an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the distribution of living organisms in the geographic space of the planet. She also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Each geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship to physical geographic features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (study of factors influencing individual ecosystems), etc.
Paleogeography: branch of physical geography that studies geographical features at different points in time in the geological history of the Earth. Science helps geographers obtain information about continental provisions and plate tectonics, determined through the study of paleomagnetism and fossil records.
Climatology: scientific study of climate, as well as the most important branch of geographical research in modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate, as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
Meteorology: is studying weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena affecting local and global weather.
Environmental Geography: explores the interactions between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial perspective.
Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between the coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape changes. The study also seeks to understand the impacts of coastal communities on coastal topography and ecosystems.
Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Earth's Quaternary period (the geographic history of the Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about environmental changes that occurred in the planet's recent past. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation and storage of data about the earth's surface.
Landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human Geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures of the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the focus of the research:

Geography population: studies how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle, and migration of human populations.
Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. Although this section is considered as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography attempts to understand why, how, and when places and regions of the Earth change and the impact they have on human society.
Cultural Geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it studies the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, etc.
Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human economic activity in geographical space.
Political geography: examines the political boundaries of countries around the world and the divisions between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the subdisciplines of political geography.
Geography of health: explores the impact geographical location on people's health and well-being.
Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the world's human population and attempts to understand how and why such standards vary across places and spaces.
Geography settlements: deals with the study of urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
Geography of animals: studies the animal world of the Earth and the interdependence between people and animals.

Bondarev N. D.

Arkhyz and Bolshaya Laba. -M, 2002.

Preface

General information

Features of travel in spring and summer

Pages of history

B. Laba Valley

M1. Kurdzhinovo - village Phiya.

M2. To the origins of the Great Laba.

MZ. Ashirhumara

M4. To the Labinsky glacier.

Zagedan

M5. To the Zagedan Lakes (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

Phiya

M6. Rechepsta River - lane. Phiya - village Phia (23 km, trail, 1 day)

M7. Phiya village - r. Phiya - lane Urup-Pkhiya - to the source of the river. Atsgara.

Stormy and Azimba

M8. B. Laba River - r. Stormy - lane Vorontsova-Velyaminova - l. Azimba - r. Azimba (25 km, 2 days)

M9. Burnaya River - lane Duritsky - b. Amanauz (17 km, 1 day)

From the upper reaches of B. Laba

M10. B. Laba River - lane Zegerker - trans. 46th Army - lane. Alashtrakhu, trail, 12 km, 1 day.

M11. Labinsky Glacier - lane. Psyrs - Psyrs lakes (1.5 days)

Sanchara

M12. Phiya village - r. Sanchara - lane Sanchara - lane Hell-zapsh, trail, 2 days.

M13. Polyana 7th post - mineral springs Adzapsh - lane. Adzapsh.

M14. Mineral springs Adzapsh - trail along the ridge of the GKH - lane. V. Damkhurts - river valley Damkhurts (trail, 2 days).

M15. B. Laba River - lane Abgytskha - the left source of the river. Abgytskha (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

Macera

M16. Phiya village - r. Makera - lane Macera (trail)

Mamkhurts

M17. Damkhurts village - r. Mamkhurts - "Seven Lakes" (4-5 days)

Other routes

Damkhurts

M18. Damkhurts village - lane. Damkhurts

Other routes

Bolshoy Zelenchuk. Arkhyz

On the way to Arkhyz

M19. Zelenchukskaya village - Arkhyz village (highway, 48 km).

M20. Nizhnyaya Ermolovka - Krivaya gully - Shpil settlement - r. Kyafar (trail, 1-2 days).

M21. Monuments of Nizhny Arkhyz (1 day).

M22. To the Savior Not Made by Hands

M23. Nizhny Arkhyz - Jeti-Karasu tract - Large azimuthal telescope.

M24. Climbing Mount Pastukhovaya (2733 m, 4 hours)

Other routes

In the vicinity of the village of Arkhyz

M25. Medieval Alan settlement (4-hour excursion).

M26. Barite beam - ridge. Abishira-Ahuba (8 hours).

M27. Rock Karcha-Tebe - lane. Boryu-aush

M28. Arkhyz outlook (6 hours).

M29. Cossack glade - Morkh-Syrty lakes - lane. Ozerny.

M30. Climbing Mount Krasnaya (trail, half day)

Other routes

Valley of the Arkhyz River

M31. Aul Arkhyz - r. Arkhyz (19 km, road).

M32. Arkhyz River - Gabulu-Chat plateau - Smirnova -r. Psysh (2 days, trail).

M33. Dukka River - lane Ayulu - r. Belaya - r. Psysh (26 km, 2 days).

M34. Dukka Pass - r. Burnaya - r. B. Laba.

M35. Fedoseev Pass (1 A, 2880 m).

M36. Rechepsta River - lane. Atsgara - r. Atsgara (trail, 17 km).

Other routes

Psysh

M37. River valley Psysh - lake Naurskoye (trail, 31 km).

M38. Naur Pass (1 A, 2839 m).

M39. Magana pass - Psyrs lakes - lane. Bearish.

M40. Pshish Pass

M41. Sekirtme River - lane. Chuchkhur - Green Lakes - lane. Hare Ears or per. Kholodovsky - r. Psysh (3 days)

M42. Bush Glacier - lane. Kizgych False - trans. Chuchhurskaya Gap - lane. Chamagwara.

M43. Glacier Psysh - lane. Tokmak and lane Psysh.

Other routes

Belaya and amanauz

M44. Belaya River (Ayulyu) - lane. Dorbun - the source of the river. Stormy

M45. Gorge river Amanauz - per. Tornau and per. Bear-Labinsky glacier.

M46. Amanauz River - lane. Poachers - r. Burnaya (9 km)

M47. Amanauz and Azimba passes

Other routes

Sofia

M48. Aul Arkhyz - r. Sofia - Glacier farm (road, 16 km).

M49. Sofia Falls (half-day excursion) leaves an unforgettable impression.

M50. Pass Sofia Sedlo(2640 m)

M51. Glacier farm - r. Ak-Ayry - per. Bash-Jol -r. Psysh (20 km, 1 day)

M52. Ak-Ayry River - lane. Topal-Aush (Kozhukhova) - Green Lakes (2 days)

M53. Ak-Ayry glacier - lane. Ak-Ayry - r. Kyshlau-su (1 day)

M54. Climbing Mount Nadezhda (1A, 3355 m, 10-12 hours)

M55. Ak-Ayry River - lane. Kel-Aush - Upper Sofia Lakes - Kel-Bashi city - r. Ak-Ayry (2-3 days)

M56. River valley Sofia - Gammesh-Chat lakes (excursion, 15 km)

M57. River Sofia - lane Eaglet - lake Craternoye - lake Comma - lakes Kashkha-Echki-Chat - r. Sofia (16 km, 2 3 days)

Other routes

Kizgich

M58. Aul Arkhyz - r. Kizgych - Kshgych-Bash tract (trail, 3-6 days).

M59. Kizgych-Bash tract - Besh-Chuchkhur waterfall - Green Lakes (one-day excursion).

M60. Kizgych and Satkharo passes

M61. Kizgych-Bash tract - river valley Salynngan - l. Saleungang (one-day excursion)

M62. Lake Mironova (6-8 hour excursion)

M63. Passes Kongur, Salyngan, Chvakhra

M64. Baga-Tala tract - lane. Bugoychat - r. Marukh (14 km)

M65. Pass of the 810th Infantry Regiment (1 B, 3000 m)

M66. Kurella Pass - lane. Chvakhra - trans. Kongur - lane Satharo - trans. Kizgych False

Kyafar-Urup. Abishira-Ahuba

M67. Zelenchukskaya village - Storozhevaya village - village. Leso-Kyafar

M68. Stanitsa Zelenchukskaya - r. B. Zelenchuk - Generovskaya beam - r. Kyafar-Agur - forestry cordon

At the source of the river Kyafar-Agur

M69. Kyzylchuk ridge - Rassypnoy hillock - Agur lakes - lane. Fedoseeva - Arkhyz (trail, 4-6 days).

M70. Agur Lakes - lane. Agur - lane Mylgval - lake. Kyzylchuk (1-1.5 days).

M71. West River Agur - lane Kumbyzh - lake Kyzylchuk - lake Rybnoe (trail, 4-5 hours).

Other routes

Kyzylchuk. Chilik.

M72. Rassypnoy hillock - Kumbyzh tract - r. Kyzylchuk-oz. Rybnoe - lane Rechepsta - r. Arkhyz (3-4 days)

M73. Fish Lake - lane. Kynhara - lake Chilik - lane Chilik - r. Arkhyz (1.5-2 days)

M74. Rybnoye Lake - lane. Kyzylchuk - lake Chilik - lane Psykela - r. Atsgara - Glade of poppies (2-3 days)

M75. Traverse ridge Abishir-Ahuba from the lane. Chilik to lane Rechepsta

M76. Kyafar-Rechepsta pass (1A, 3000 m)

M77. Kyafar-Arkhyz pass (1 A*, 3000 m)

Other routes

Atsgara

M78. Atsgara River - lane. Zagedan - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba (1-1.5 days).

M79. Glade of poppies - lane. Kabanly - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba

M80. Glade of poppies - lane. Kyrthua - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba (1.5 days)

To the sources of the Urup River

M81. The village of Urup - ridge. Akshirsky - upper reaches of the river. Urup -r. Zagedanka (trail, 3-4 days)

M82. Great Urup Canyon

M83. Urup-Atsgara pass (1 A*, 3000 m)

Other routes

Brief toponymic dictionary

PREFACE

Western Caucasus is one of the most popular areas mountain tourism, which in the 90s experienced a decline in attendance, as did the entire Caucasus as a whole. IN last years Tourists and climbers began to return here. Convenient access, diverse, technically interesting passes and peaks, many high-mountain lakes - all this attracts lovers of mountain travel.

The last book on this region was the guidebook “Mountain Travel in the Western Caucasus” (V.V. Arsenin, N.D. Bondarev, E.D. Sergievsky. M: FiS, 1976). Since then, in the West. The Caucasus has undergone serious changes.

Paths to the southern slopes of Main Caucasian ridge(GKH) were cut off due to the appearance of the state border, new routes were developed on the northern slopes. A need arose for a new guidebook, and it was decided to publish it in two books: “Arkhyz. Big Laba” (N.D. Bondarev) and “From Marukh to Elbrus” (V.V. Arsenin). They continue the series of guidebooks “Elbrus and its spurs” and “South of Baksan” (A. A. Alekseev).

The guidebook for each valley first describes the approach routes, then the pass routes to neighboring gorges. By connecting individual sections, you can create multi-day routes of varying difficulty levels. Descriptions of the passage of passes are mainly tied to July - August. A separate section is devoted to traveling in the off-season (April - May, October - November). Techniques for overcoming mountainous terrain, with rare exceptions, are not given.

Due to rare visits to some valleys, descriptions of individual areas may not correspond to the specific situation, primarily due to the condition of trails, bridges and the location of the pits. In recent years, intensive glacial melting has been observed in the Caucasus, which is why large areas open up even on the slopes of northern exposure in August open ice, the danger of rockfalls increases.

In the descriptions, the indications "left" and "right" are used in an orographic sense, when the observer is looking down the river. Otherwise stated.

Currently, the area has become a border area. To visit it, especially near the border with Abkhazia, permission is required, which can be obtained in advance at the address: 357100, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Cherkessk, st. Leonova, 2, military unit 2011.

At the end of the book there is a list of literature that allows you to become more familiar with the nature and history of the area.

In the guidebook, the chapter “General Geographical Information” was written jointly with V.V. Arsenin. E. A. Alperten and E. A. Chernopyatov took part in the descriptions of the routes. A. Kovalenko, A. Kozhukhov, N.V. Koloshina, V.P. Kuznetsov, I.T. Kuznetsov, V.A. Lunin, P.F. Chirukhin, V.Ya. Fridlyand provided assistance in preparing the book with their materials. . It should be noted that L.V. Wegener played a special role in the preparation of the guide. He compiled a toponymic dictionary, described several routes and made valuable comments on the text and diagrams.

The guide uses photographs by E. A. Alperten, N. D. Bondarev, V. A. Zheltyakov, N. Yu. Kretov, A. V. Pavelchik and E. A. Chernopyatov. At the final stage of preparing the book, a lot of technical work was done by V. A. Kozhin, V. V. Konyshev, L. V. Turkina, E. A. Chernopyatov.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

The Western Caucasus is the region of the Caucasus west of Elbrus with borders along the upper reaches of the Kuban and Nenskra. In a narrower sense, to the West. The Caucasus includes the region that includes a high-mountain, glacier-covered section of the Main Caucasus Range (MCR) about 200 km long. Located to the west, the lower mountains belong to the North-West. Caucasus.

The guide covers part of the West. Caucasus with mountains in the upper reaches of B. Zelenchuk, B. Laba, Kyafar-Agur and Urup. Administratively, this territory belongs to the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Stavropol and Krasnodar region. The most high peaks districts - Pshish (3790 m) and Sofia (3640 m).

Spurs extend north from the GKH, separated by deep valleys of the tributaries of the B. Zelenchuk and B. Laba. At a distance of about 20 km from the GKH, a ridge is located parallel to it. Abishira-Ahuba, belonging to the system of the Advanced (Side) Ridge. By the way, Elbrus (5642 m) also belongs to it. Even further north, along the Peredovoye, stretches the Rocky Ridge (altitude about 2000 m), which has gentle northern slopes. To the south of the GKH there are the Bzyb and Chkhalta ridges. Their spurs, cut through deep canyons the Amtkel, Jampal, Kelasuri and Gumista rivers gradually disappear towards the Black Sea coast.

The rivers of the northern slope of the GKH cut through the Side Range with tight gorges, and in the upper reaches many valleys have extensive basins. The rivers originate from glaciers and snowfields; maximum water occurs in the summer; for the most part, the rivers are clean and transparent.

mountain river- a serious obstacle. The crossing is especially difficult in rainy weather, when the water level rises noticeably. In the Caucasus, where there is a fairly dense network of roads and trails, there are bridges across almost all major rivers. The route must be tied to them. The shepherds build luggage, temporary bridges across large streams. You can find out about the condition of these crossings in villages and villages.

There are many lakes in this region. At altitude, the largest of them lie in carts left by ancient glaciers. Many small tarns and moraine lakes (some with ice until the end of summer) give these mountains a special charm.

The higher it is raised Mountain country, the deeper and more ancient stone layers are exposed and come into view as a result of weathering and washout of rocks. When traveling through the valleys of the Kuban, you see near Cherkessk, by the river, Quaternary deposits and sedimentary rocks of the Tertiary period (up to 65 million years old), beyond Ust-Dzhegutinskaya - the Cretaceous period (up to 140 million years old). Then, at the entrance to Karachaevsk and beyond it, you cross a wide belt of Jurassic rocks (up to 200 million years old).

On the seismic map of the country, the Caucasus is classified as a 7-8 point zone. An earthquake in the mountains is dangerous due to the occurrence of rockfalls, collapse of cornices and mudflows. A strong earthquake, called Chkhalta, occurred on July 16, 1963. Its epicenter was located near the village of Ptysh, which caused great destruction. A rockfall led to a tragedy in a group of climbers on the wall of Mount Dombay-Ulgena.

On the southern slope of the GKH, where there was a thunderstorm with rain at that time, landslides occurred. As a result, the road in the village was destroyed in several places. Chkhalta. The landslide blocked the upper reaches of the river. Ptysh. The river swept away the barrier, the mudflow washed away the banks and toppled the forest.

Although strong tremors are rare, their likelihood forces one to carefully approach the choice of bivouac site, critically assessing it (including ready-made sites) from the point of view of rockfall.

The climate of the area is determined by two factors: proximity to the Black Sea and a chain of high mountains. The influence of the sea is stronger on southern slopes, which intercept a significant portion of the moisture from warm western and southwestern winds. At their foot and on the coast, about 1500 mm of precipitation falls per year. With altitude, the amount of precipitation increases, reaching 3000 mm or more. In winter, a lot of snow falls at moderate altitudes; in the highlands, the thickness of the snow cover reaches several meters.

It is colder and drier on the northern slopes. When crossing the GKH, this difference is very noticeable. As you ascend into the mountains, the temperature drops and the amount of precipitation increases. In Teberda, located at an altitude of about 1300 m, average temperature July +15.6 "C, January ~4" C, about 700 mm of precipitation falls per year.

In Dombay (1630 m) the temperature is several degrees lower, and the precipitation is twice as much. According to long-term observations at the Klukhorsky Pass weather station (2037 m), the height of the snow cover reaches 2 m, and on the pre-summit slopes it reaches 4 m. The rainiest months are May and June. The relatively dry season lasts from August to October. In August, frosts are already common at altitudes of 2500 m.

Over the last hundred years, the area of most glaciers has decreased by about a quarter, and their number has increased due to fragmentation (although some small ones have disappeared completely). The average thickness of cirque glaciers is 25-30 m, and of large valley glaciers - 100 m. The glaciers continue to retreat, the moraines are covered with grass and bushes. The Caucasus is characterized by the proximity of glaciers and bright greenery. In the Hetskvara gorge in July, azalea blooms a few tens of meters from the glacier.

Avalanche danger is coming late autumn in October - November, when snowfalls begin. Dry snow avalanches occur during or immediately after heavy snowfalls (70-100 mm per day). During snowstorms, snow boards form. In cold winters with little snow, the cause of an avalanche can be the formation of a fragile layer of deep frost. With the transition of the average daily temperature above 0 °C in March - April, the time of wet avalanches begins. They are also possible in winter during thaws. Mass avalanches usually end by May, but in the highlands this period is delayed. On snowy slopes and under eaves, avalanche danger persists all year round.

Avalanche cones remain at the foot of the slopes until the middle, and in shaded areas until the end of summer. The danger of avalanches also exists in the middle mountains: avalanche centers, although rare, are known near Teberda and Arkhyz. Particular attention to avalanche danger is required when traveling in spring (May) and autumn.

Entering the mountains from the north, you first cross a belt of deciduous forests, starting from an altitude of 500-600 m. Its lower floor (up to 900-1000 m) is occupied by oak-hornbeam forests with hazel, ash, pear, and the upper (up to 1400 m) - beech. In wide developed parts of the valleys, such forests are found in islands, but they completely cover the steep, inaccessible slopes of the gorges. Alder and willow grow along the banks of the rivers. At altitudes from 1200-1400 m to 2200 m there are dark coniferous forests (fir, spruce). Dry sunny slopes and rocks are occupied by pine trees.

Above there is a subalpine belt, the limits of which range from 1800 to 2500 m. Above the edge of the tall-trunk forest stretches a strip of beech, birch, and maple woodland. Here there are thickets of rhododendrons, the bushes of which bloom in different time, and its white or cream inflorescences can be seen almost all summer. Even higher up lie tall grass meadows as tall as a man. Here is a kingdom of flowers: orange elecampane, blue bells, white daisies, pink hollyhocks, yellow lilies, crimson clover. Three-meter umbrellas of hogweed rise in the middle of the sea of flowers. Touching it causes long-lasting burns.

On gentle slopes where livestock graze, the grass stand is poorer. Thickets of horse sorrel and poisonous hellebore stand out here. In alpine meadows (2500-3200 m), short grass does not hide the stones. The floral carpet is filled with bright blue hyacinths, purple primroses, yellow ranunculus, pink asters and purple bluebells. Grass and flowers also grow on rocky shelves high above the snowfields and ice.

Animal world includes more than 40 species of mammals and 120 species of birds. The forests are home to wild boar, roe deer, Caucasian deer, fox, lynx, jackal, and marten. The brown hare is found everywhere. The Altai squirrel, introduced in 1937, has spread. There are also wolves. In the Caucasian and Teberda nature reserves, work is underway to restore the herd that was exterminated at the beginning of the 20th century. Caucasian bison. In summer, a brown bear stays near the edge of the forest, where you can stumble upon a bedding area it has left. It also enters valleys, especially raspberry fields. On the grassy ledges near the forest you can see a herd of chamois, and on the rocks in the upper reaches of the gorges - aurochs. Tur's "paths" follow barely noticeable ledges and shelves; traces of tur's are also found on snowfields. It is dangerous to be below these animals, because stones may fall from under their hooves!

Among the birds of the forest and meadow zones there are both common for the middle zone - jay, woodpecker, cuckoo, and mountain birds - stone partridge (chukar), griffon vulture, black vulture. In the highlands live the snowcock (a large gray turkey) and the black, yellow-beaked alpine jackdaw, which lives near glaciers and snowfields.

Among the reptiles found (up to the rocks of the Alpine belt) are lizards, grass snakes, copperheads, steppe and Caucasian vipers. Caucasian viper, endemic to Western Europe. Caucasus, found up to an altitude of 2500 m in clearings and overgrown screes. In the subalpine zone, the viper stays near rocks and screes. It can have different colors, but is characterized by a wide black zigzag stripe on the back. It is difficult to distinguish a snake among dry fern leaves or stones covered with lichens.

There are trout in the rivers and some lakes.

To the West There are nature reserves in the Caucasus - Caucasian and Teberdinsky (with a branch in Arkhyz). Permission is required to stay there. In the gorges (B. Zelenchuk, Urup, B. Laba, etc.) reserves have been created where hunting is prohibited, fishing and berry picking.

The foothills and valleys, suitable for farming and gardening, are densely populated. Main view economic activity- cattle breeding. The movement of livestock to mountain pastures occurs in May-June, the season usually lasts until September. For temporary residence, traditional koshas are used - huts made of logs, stone, shingles or twigs and tents.

Meadows in valleys where there are roads are used for haymaking. The mountaineers value them, clear them of stones and fence them. Under no circumstances should you trample the grass, shortening the paths, set up a bivouac on it, or throw stones around.

Russia - a state located on two continents, in eastern Europe and northern Asia. The largest country in the world - 17,125,422 sq/km or 1/9 of the entire land area of the Earth, which is twice as much as Canada, which ranks second.

Russia borders on 19 countries(the largest figure in the world), of which by land with the following countries: Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania - in the northwest, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine - in the west, Abkhazia, Georgia, South Ossetia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan - in the south, China, Mongolia, North Korea- in the southeast; and by sea with Turkey - in the southwest, with Japan and the USA - in the east. Besides, Kaliningrad region, a Russian enclave on the Baltic Sea coast, borders Poland and Lithuania on the eastern side.
belong to Russia also islands New Earth, Severnaya Zemlya, Vaigach, Franz Josef Land archipelago, New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island in the Arctic Ocean in the north, Kurile Islands(parts of which are still disputed by Japan) and the island of Sakhalin in the Pacific Ocean to the east.
In the east Russia is washed Japanese, Okhotsk and Bering seas and the Bering Strait; in the north - by the Laptev Sea and the White, Barents, Kara, Chukchi and East Siberian seas; in the West - Baltic Sea And Gulf of Finland; in the south - the Black, Azov and Caspian seas.

After the collapse of the USSR at the end of 1991, the Russian Federation was recognized by the international community as a federal republic and accepted into the UN Security Council and a number of other international organizations. Independence Russian Federation was announced on August 24, 1991. The head of state is the President (elected once every 6 years), executive power belongs to the government headed by the Prime Minister (appointed by Parliament upon nomination by the President).
The State Duma and the Federation Council form a bicameral Parliament.
Lower House State Duma - 450 deputies, elections are held once every 5 years.
Upper House Federation Council - 170 senators appointed by regional parliaments.
Part The Russian Federation includes 22 republics, one autonomous region (Jewish), 4 autonomous okrugs, 9 edges and 46 regions.
Moscow, St. Petersburg and Sevastopol have direct federal subordination and are cities of federal significance. In total, as of 2015, there are 85 constituent entities in the Russian Federation.

From a demographic point of view in the Russian Federation, the most significant event in March 2014 was the actual reunification Crimean peninsula with the territory of the Russian state.

Capital of Russia- Moscow. The largest city Russia with a population of 12,197,596 people.
Heart of Russia- Moscow Kremlin.
In total, there are 15 million-plus cities in Russia, largest cities with a population of over 1 million people. These are Moscow, St. Petersburg (more than 5 million people); Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg (more than 1.5 million people); Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Samara, Chelyabinsk, Omsk, Rostov-on-Don, Ufa, Krasnoyarsk, Perm, Volgograd, Voronezh.

Total Russia covers11 time zones with a difference from +2 to +12 hours relative to Greenwich.

Population- 146,293,111 people (as of 2014 od). The majority of Russian residents (about 80%) live in the European part (Central, Southern, North Caucasus, Northwestern, Volga, and Ural federal districts). The remaining 20% is in the Asian part of Russia (Siberian, Far Eastern districts). The majority of the population lives in cities - 75%.
Live in Russia representatives of more than 200 nationalities. The largest ethnic group - Russians - makes up 80% of the country's population. Tatars - 4%, Ukrainians - 3%, Chuvash, Bashkirs, Belarusians, Mordovians, Chechens, Armenians, Avars and other nationalities - 1% or less.
Peoples of Russia speak more than 100 languages and dialects. Russian is the native language of approximately 130 million citizens (92% of the Russian population). He is also state language Russian Federation. Also, Ukrainian, Tatar, Armenian and other languages are common.
Christians live in Russia(mainly Orthodox), Muslims, Buddhists (mainly in Buryatia, Kalmykia and Tuva - Siberia), Jews, pagans and representatives of other religious faiths. The share of Russian citizens who are Orthodox Christians is 70% of all residents of the country. The number of Muslims is 15% of the population. Convinced atheists make up 6% of the population.
State currency- Russian ruble (~60 RUB = 1 USD).

Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources, large reserves of various minerals, the most important of which are oil, gas, coal, gold and other strategic minerals. Russia ranks first in the world in terms of forest area, which occupy 45% of the country's territory, and has approximately 1/5 of the world's timber reserves. Also, Russia has the largest number of lakes, containing about a quarter of the world's reserves of unfrozen fresh water.
Despite the vastness of the territory, V agriculture A relatively small part of the land is used - arable land occupies only 8% of the country's territory. A significant part of the territory falls on the permafrost zone.

About 3/4 of the territory The countries are made up of plains. In the west lies the East European Plain, one of the largest plains in the world, on which almost the entire European part of Russia is located. In the south of the country there are northern slopes Caucasus Mountains where is the most high point countries and Europe - Mount Elbrus (5.642 meters). In the east the plain is limited by low old Ural mountains altitude up to 2,000 meters. And to the east of the Urals lies the West Siberian Plain with vast wetlands, bordered in the southeast Altai mountains altitude up to 4,500 meters. Closer to the Pacific coast in the east is the region of mountain ranges and plateaus of Northeast Asia. So, East End The country, with the exception of the valleys of large rivers, is mountainous. There are 120 volcanoes on the Kamchatka Peninsula, 23 of which are active. The highest of them is Klyuchevskaya Sopka with a height of 4,750 meters. Largest rivers countries - Volga, Northern Dvina, Don, Irtysh, Ob, Angara, Yenisei, Lena, Amur. The largest lakes: Baikal (in the southeast) - the deepest and largest in volume in the world, Lakes Ladoga, Onega (in the northeast).

Most of the country located within moderate climate zone. The extreme regions of the north and northern islands belong to the Arctic zone, and some southern areas are close to the subtropics. The climate throughout almost the entire country is continental, which is especially evident in the large range of seasonal temperatures and scarcity of precipitation. In most parts of the territory, winter is long. Particularly severe frosts are observed in Eastern Yakutia (-45..-50 degrees). In the European part of Russia, winter temperatures range from 0 to -10 degrees. In summer, average temperatures are +15..+25 degrees. In the warm half of the year - from May to October - the bulk of precipitation falls.
Differences in climate zones characterizes diversity natural areas. In the arctic deserts Far North mosses, polar poppies, and buttercups grow; in the tundra, dwarf birch, willow, and alder are added to these species. Spruce, fir, cedar, and larch are typical for the taiga. To the south and west begins a zone of broad-leaved forests of oak, maple, linden, and hornbeam. Also, in the country you can find many rare species: Mongolian oak, Manchurian maple, elm, walnut. In the forest-steppe and steppe parts of the country there are oak forests, herbs, and cereals. The Black Sea subtropics are dominated by forests of fluffy oak, junipers, boxwood, and black alder. On the coast there are eucalyptus and palm trees.
Rich and diverse fauna countries. In the Arctic and tundra zones: arctic fox, reindeer, polar hare, seals, walruses, polar bear. The taiga is inhabited by bear, lynx, wapiti, wolverine, elk, sable, ermine, chipmunk, and squirrel; Capercaillie, hazel grouse, black grouse, woodpecker, and nutcracker nest. In addition, the taiga is characterized by the presence huge amount mosquitoes The deciduous forests are home to wild boar, deer, mink, numerous birds, and lizards. In forests Far East- rare Ussuri tigers, bears, deer. Among the animals of the steppe zone, small rodents predominate, with many saigas, badgers, foxes, and large steppe birds (bustard, crane, little bustard). In the desert there are gazelles, jackals, sand cats, and numerous rodents. Lots of reptiles and turtles. IN Caucasus region inhabited by mountain goats, Caucasian deer, porcupines, leopards, hyenas, bears, as well as a large number of reptiles.

Current state of geodesy

The beginning of modern fifth period The development of geodesy coincides with the launch of the first artificial Earth satellites (AES). The emergence of satellites opened up new opportunities for solving scientific and practical problems of geodesy and marked the beginning of space geodesy. A striking example of this is the emergence of global positioning systems GPS and GLONASS. The parameters of the global ellipsoid were determined from satellite measurements.

Important scientific and technical achievement, which literally revolutionized the processes of performing geodetic work is the advent of computer technology. Their use allowed:

Create automated geodetic instruments, which increases labor productivity and reliability of measurement results;

Quickly mathematically process large volumes of geodetic measurement results;

Store large amounts of geodetic data in databases and quickly access them;

Present geodetic data in computer graphics formats that are convenient for consumers of geodetic data and solve their specific problems.

From geography we know that: The Earth is a sphere, almost two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. The surface itself is uneven. There are plains and mountains, both on land and under water (Fig. 31).

Rice. 31. Physical surface of the Earth

The most high mountain located in Tibet. This is Chomolungma (Everest), 8848 meters above sea level. The deepest ocean trench is Mariana Pacific Ocean. Its depth is 10994 meters below sea level. Thus, the maximum difference in landforms on the planet is less than 19 km.

There are 6 continents in total on Earth (Eurasia, North America, South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica) and 4 oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic)

Rice. 32. Geographic map

The entire surface of the Earth or part of it can be depicted in the form of a geographical map (Fig. 32).

To describe the position of objects on the Earth's surface, there is a system of geographic coordinates - latitudes and longitudes, measured in degrees and minutes of arc (Fig. 32).

To do this, meridians and parallels are drawn along the surface of the Earth.

Meridians go from pole to pole. Meridians are counted from the prime meridian - Greenwich to the east (eastern longitude) and west (western longitude). St. Petersburg is located on the meridian 30° east.

The change of day and night is caused by the fact that the Earth rotates around its axis, completing a full rotation in 24 hours. The next date starts at midnight. But on different meridians midnight occurs at different times. If it is day in St. Petersburg, then in the USA it is night. It turns out that each meridian has its own time, which is called local time. For example, if in St. Petersburg there is 1 hour (1 h) of local time, then in Moscow it is approximately 1.5 h of local time. Local time is used, for example, in making astronomical observations. Under normal conditions, such time counting is inconvenient. Therefore, standard time is used everywhere, and in the Russian Federation also maternity and summer time.

Each revolution of the planet adds one day, that is, after standard (maternity, summer) time is received, the next date comes. To coordinate dates around the world established date line, which runs approximately along the 180º meridian. Therefore, if, for example, September 16 comes at midnight in Alaska, then 3 hours later, September 17 comes at midnight in Chukotka.

Parallels run parallel to the equator. Latitude is determined by parallels. Latitudes are counted both north (northern latitude) and south (south latitude) of the equator. Accordingly, the latitude of the North Pole is +90° N, the latitude of the South Pole is -90° S.

There are four specific parallels. Northern Tropic or the Tropic of Cancer - a parallel in which at noon on the day of the summer solstice on June 22, the Sun will be exactly at its zenith. It runs along the parallel 23º 27" N. South Tropic or the Tropic of Capricorn runs along the parallel 23º 27" S, respectively.

Arctic Circle- a parallel, north of which polar day and polar night can be observed. Its latitude is 66º 44" N, for South Arctic Circle- 66º 44" S respectively.

By geographical map can be determined geographical coordinates any object depicted on it. For example, from a fragment of a geographical map in Figure 33, you can approximately determine the coordinates of St. Petersburg as follows: latitude 60° N, longitude 30° E.

Rice. 33. Fragment of a geographical map

In addition, using a geographic map, you can determine the height (depth) of a point above sea level.

The latitude and longitude of a point are inherently global (global), absolute coordinates. Often there is a need for a point to describe its position relative to another point. Such coordinates are called relative. Consider Figure 34.

Rice. 34. Relative coordinates of points

There are two points on the geographical map: point 1 And point 2 . The first coordinate is the distance S 1-2 , which is determined in a known way - the distance on the map is measured, for example, with a ruler and the distance on the ground is calculated based on the scale of the map.

The second coordinate is azimuth. To determine it, you need to:

Draw a line on the map connecting both points;

Draw lines of meridians of points on the map (“meridian point 1” and “meridian point 2”);

Using a protractor, measure the angles between the meridians and the line connecting the points; The angle is measured from the north direction of the meridian clockwise.

The measured angles are the azimuths. It is believed that for point 1 azimuth A 1-2 is direct, A A 2-1 - reverse. For point 2 - vice versa.

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