Outstanding explorers and geographical discoveries. Great geographical discoveries. Portuguese discoveries of the 15th century

Geographical discoveries is finding new ones geographical objects or geographical patterns. In the early stages of the development of geography, discoveries related to new geographical objects predominated. A particularly important role was played by the discoveries of previously unknown parts of the land (territorial discoveries). With the development of geography as a science, discoveries that help identify geographic patterns and deepen knowledge of the essence of geographical phenomena and their interrelations are becoming increasingly important.

Scientists find the beginnings of geographical knowledge among the peoples of the Ancient East - the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, Phenicia. When crossing deserts and sailing the seas, people learned to navigate by the Sun, Moon and stars. Ancient Mesopotamian scientists first divided the circle into degrees, the year into 12 months, and the day into 24 hours.

Famous Explorers	Years of Research	Major achievements (geographical discoveries)
Egyptians		Hiking in Central Africa. Sailing the Mediterranean Sea
Phoenicians		First to sail around Africa
Herodotus	5th century BC	He left a monument to ancient science, “History in Nine Books,” with geographical information.
Scientists of Ancient Greece		Selected 3 climatic zones: northern (Scythia), southern (Egypt and Arabia) and middle (Mediterranean).
Aristotle	4th century BC	He was the first to prove the sphericity of the Earth and the Moon. Author of "Meteorology" (the first work on physical geography)
Eratosthenes	3rd century BC	He was the first to determine the size of the Earth along the meridian. Developed a method for constructing a map. Wrote "Geography" (Geography in 3 books)
Ptolemy	2nd century AD	A guide to geography in 8 books is a collection of knowledge about the geography of everything known to the ancient peoples of the world
Arabs		They founded colonies on the east coast of Africa and traveled to China and India.
Normans	IX – XI centuries	Iceland and Greenland were discovered and settled. We reached the shores of North America.
Novgorodians		We went to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, Grumant Island (Spitsbergen), and reached the mouth of the Ob.
Marco Polo	1271-1295	He was the first European to visit China and many areas of Asia. He wrote a book about the nature of the Pamirs, the monsoons of India, and the useful plants of China.
Afanasy Nikitin	1466-1472	He was the first Russian to visit India and Arabia through Persia.
Bartolomeu Dias	1488	Explored Western and south coast Africa
Christopher Columbus	1492-1494	Discovered America in 1492 - Bahamas, Greater and Lesser Antilles
Vasco da Gama	1497-1499	Opened a continuous sea route to India, circumnavigating Africa.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa	1513-1525	Crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the Pacific coast in America
Ferdinand Magellan	1519-1522	Under the leadership of this navigator, the expedition made the first circumnavigation of the world.
Francis Drake	1577-1580	Made a second trip around the world, discovered many geographical features in different parts of the Earth
Abel Tasman	1642	Opened New Zealand and Tasmania
Vitus Bering	1741	Discovered the northwest coast of North America
James Cook	1768 -1779	Opened East Coast Australia, Hawaiian Islands, the first explorer to cross the Antarctic Circle
Alexander Humboldt	1799 -1804	Extensively explored nature South America
F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev	1819 -1821	Antarctica and its surrounding islands were discovered
David Livingston	Ser. XIX century	Conducted research in South and Central Africa
P. P. Semenov Tien-Shansky	1857	Explored mountain ranges Tien Shan
N. M. Przhevalsky	1870-1888	Made four trips to Central Asia

More detailed information can be found in

The history of mankind has many important events, for example, great geographical discoveries (GDOs) played an important role in the history of mankind.

First of all, the data on the geography of the entire territory of the planet changed, new maps were compiled.

Why are great geographical discoveries called great? First of all, because these events led to the establishment of ties between states, as well as the expansion of their territories.

Perhaps not everyone knows the most Interesting Facts about outstanding discoverers and navigators. How did the discovery of new lands proceed? Let's find out!

The beginning of the era of great geographical discoveries

Before considering the progress of the VGO, it is necessary to understand the main reasons. There are 2 main reasons: the fragmentation of feudal estates (the ruin of their owners) and the increase in the treasury of the rulers.

Conventionally, VGO is divided into two stages: European (15-16 centuries) and Russian (16-20 centuries).

The European period included:

discovery of America;
sea route to India (we will introduce who first discovered India below);
exploration of the Pacific Ocean (discovery of Russia by Europe).

Discovery of Alaska by Russian travelers (Vitus Bering and Alexey Chirikov)

During the Russian period the following events occurred:

development of North America and Australia;
development of northern Europe and Asia;
exploration of the Pacific Ocean.

Below we will consider each period in detail, and also learn many interesting facts. For example, who was the first to reach China or who was the first to circumnavigate Africa.

Great travelers and their geographical discoveries

In the presented table you can see the names of travelers, dates of discoveries, and what exactly happened during that period of time.

Traveler	date	Opening
*Marco Polo*	1266	The first to reach China. He wrote “The Book on the Diversity of the World,” which subsequently made a great impression on many travelers.
*Bartolomeu Dias*	1488	Cape reclaimed Good Hope(Africa). The path to India has been paved. Trade with Africa is open.
*Christopher Columbus*	1492	America is open. Everyone remembers that Columbus mistook America for the shores of southern India. In 1501, Vespucci discovered Brazil and the mainland of South America, which he named after Columbus (the pioneer).
*Vasco da Gama*	1498	He was the first to discover India, the first to circumnavigate Africa.
*Vasca Nunens Balboa*	1513	The Pacific Ocean has been explored. Panama was colonized by the Portuguese.
*Ferdinand Magellan*	1519 – 1522	First circumnavigation of the world. maps of the Indian Ocean were compiled. The Strait of Magellan is open.
*Abel Tasman*	1642 – 1643	Discovery of Antarctica and the islands of New Guinea. One of the islands is named after the traveler. The coasts of Ireland and Norway are open. A new trade route has been opened.

Discoveries of Russian travelers

The table contains data on Russian travelers, dates of events are recorded, short description happening at that time period.

Traveler	date	Opening
*Sergey Dezhnev*	17th century	Study of Eastern and Northern Siberia. Opening of the Bering Strait.
*Ivan Moskvitin*	1639	The Pacific coast is open.
*Vitus Bering and Alexey Chirikov*	1725 –	Kamchatka expeditions were carried out. The coast of the Arctic Ocean has been explored. Alaska is open.
*Ivan Krusenstern and Yuri Lisyansky*	1803 – 1806	First trip around the world. Sakhalin is discovered. Atlases created " South Sea».
*Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev*	1819	Discovery of the islands of Antarctica.
*Gennady Nevelskoy*	1849 – 1855	Discovery of the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan. Establishment of the border with China on the Amur.
*Petr Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky*	1856	Asia Exploration; Passage along the border with China.
*Nikolai Przhevalsky*	1870 – 1880s	The Ussuri region has been explored. The territories of Mongolia, China and Tibet have been explored.
*Boris Vilkitsky*	1910 –	The land of Nicholas II was discovered. Taimyr and nearby territories of the Arctic Ocean have been explored.

Latest geographical discoveries of the 21st century

Contemporaries reveal the secrets of the last century. Therefore, most expeditions explore the territories and waters of Antarctica, Canary Islands, the waters of the Amazon, islands between the two continents of America and the territory of the Arctic Ocean.

Gamburtsev Mountains (Antarctic Alps) - ancient mountain system in Antarctica. They were discovered in 1958 by Soviet researchers, but remained unexplored for a long time due to inaccessibility.

Consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries

Discoverers, travelers and sailors made enormous contributions to human history:

new lands and countries were discovered;
new trade routes appeared;
with the help of VGO, the economy becomes multifaceted;
Colonization led to the mixing of religions and the socialization of different cultures. Science begins to develop throughout the world;
The population increases and races mix.

Travel has always attracted people, but before it was not only interesting, but also extremely difficult. The territories were unexplored, and when setting off, everyone became an explorer. Which travelers are the most famous and what exactly did each of them discover?

James Cook

The famous Englishman was one of the best cartographers of the eighteenth century. He was born in the north of England and by the age of thirteen began to work with his father. But the boy turned out to be incapable of trading, so he decided to take up sailing. In those days everything famous travelers the world went to distant countries on ships. James became interested in maritime affairs and rose through the ranks so quickly that he was offered to become a captain. He refused and went to the Royal Navy. Already in 1757, the talented Cook began to steer the ship himself. His first achievement was drawing up the river fairway. He discovered his talent as a navigator and cartographer. In the 1760s he explored Newfoundland, which attracted the attention of the Royal Society and the Admiralty. He was entrusted with a journey across the Pacific Ocean, where he reached the shores of New Zealand. In 1770, he accomplished something that other famous travelers had not achieved before - he discovered a new continent. Cook returned to England in 1771 as the famous pioneer of Australia. His last journey was an expedition in search of a passage connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Today, even schoolchildren know the sad fate of Cook, who was killed by cannibal natives.

Christopher Columbus

Famous travelers and their discoveries have always had a significant influence on the course of history, but few turned out to be as famous as this man. Columbus became a national hero of Spain, decisively expanding the map of the country. Christopher was born in 1451. The boy quickly achieved success because he was diligent and studied well. Already at the age of 14 he went to sea. In 1479, he met his love and began life in Portugal, but after the tragic death of his wife, he and his son went to Spain. Having received the support of the Spanish king, he set out on an expedition whose goal was to find a route to Asia. Three ships sailed from the coast of Spain to the west. In October 1492 they reached the Bahamas. This is how America was discovered. Christopher mistakenly decided to call the local residents Indians, believing that he had reached India. His report changed history: two new continents and many islands, discovered by Columbus, became the main direction of travel for colonialists in the next few centuries.

Vasco da Gama

The most famous traveler of Portugal was born in the city of Sines on September 29, 1460. From a young age he worked in the navy and became famous as a confident and fearless captain. In 1495, King Manuel came to power in Portugal, who dreamed of developing trade with India. For this, a sea route was needed, in search of which Vasco da Gama had to go. There were more famous sailors and travelers in the country, but for some reason the king chose him. In 1497, four ships sailed south, rounded and sailed to Mozambique. They had to stop there for a month - half the team by that time was suffering from scurvy. After the break, Vasco da Gama reached Calcutta. In India, he established trade relations for three months, and a year later returned to Portugal, where he became a national hero. The discovery of a sea route that made it possible to get to Calcutta along the east coast of Africa was his main achievement.

Nikolai Miklouho-Maclay

Famous Russian travelers also accomplished a lot important discoveries. For example, the same Nikolai Mikhlukho-Maclay, born in 1864 in the Novgorod province. He was unable to graduate from St. Petersburg University, as he was expelled for participating in student demonstrations. To continue his education, Nikolai went to Germany, where he met Haeckel, a natural scientist who invited Miklouho-Maclay to his scientific expedition. This is how the world of wanderings opened up for him. His whole life was devoted to travel and scientific work. Nikolai lived in Sicily, Australia, studied New Guinea, implementing the project of the Russian Geographical Society, visited Indonesia, the Philippines, the Malacca Peninsula and Oceania. In 1886, the natural scientist returned to Russia and proposed to the emperor to found a Russian colony overseas. But the project with New Guinea did not receive royal support, and Miklouho-Maclay became seriously ill and soon died without completing his work on the travel book.

Ferdinand Magellan

Many famous navigators and travelers lived during the era of the Great Magellan is no exception. In 1480 he was born in Portugal, in the city of Sabrosa. Having gone to serve at court (at that time he was only 12 years old), he learned about the confrontation between his native country and Spain, about travel to the East Indies and trade routes. This is how he first became interested in the sea. In 1505, Fernand got on a ship. For seven years after that, he roamed the seas and took part in expeditions to India and Africa. In 1513, Magellan traveled to Morocco, where he was wounded in battle. But this did not curb his thirst for travel - he planned an expedition for spices. The king rejected his request, and Magellan went to Spain, where he received all the necessary support. Thus began his journey around the world. Fernand thought that from the west the route to India might be shorter. He crossed Atlantic Ocean, reached South America and opened a strait that would later be named after him. became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. He used it to reach the Philippines and almost reached his goal - the Moluccas, but died in a battle with local tribes, wounded by a poisonous arrow. However, his journey revealed a new ocean to Europe and the understanding that the planet was much larger than scientists had previously thought.

Roald Amundsen

The Norwegian was born at the very end of an era in which many famous travelers became famous. Amundsen became the last of the navigators trying to find open lands. Since childhood, he was distinguished by perseverance and self-confidence, which allowed him to conquer the South Geographic Pole. The beginning of the journey is connected with 1893, when the boy dropped out of university and got a job as a sailor. In 1896 he became a navigator, and the following year he set off on his first expedition to Antarctica. The ship was lost in the ice, the crew suffered from scurvy, but Amundsen did not give up. He took command, cured the people, remembering his medical training, and led the ship back to Europe. Having become a captain, in 1903 he set out to search for the Northwest Passage off Canada. Famous travelers before him had never done anything like this - in two years the team covered the path from the east of the American continent to its west. Amundsen became famous throughout the world. The next expedition was a two-month trip to the Southern Plus, and the last enterprise was the search for Nobile, during which he went missing.

David Livingston

Many famous travelers are associated with sailing. He became a land explorer, namely the African continent. The famous Scot was born in March 1813. At age 20, he decided to become a missionary, met Robert Moffett and wanted to go to African villages. In 1841 he came to Kuruman, where he taught local residents maintaining Agriculture, served as a doctor and taught literacy. There he learned the Bechuana language, which helped him in his travels around Africa. Livingston studied in detail the life and customs of the local residents, wrote several books about them and went on an expedition in search of the sources of the Nile, in which he fell ill and died of a fever.

Amerigo Vespucci

The world's most famous travelers most often came from Spain or Portugal. Amerigo Vespucci was born in Italy and became one of the famous Florentines. He received a good education and trained as a financier. From 1490 he worked in Seville, in the Medici trade mission. His life was connected with sea voyages For example, he sponsored Columbus's second expedition. Christopher inspired him with the idea of trying himself as a traveler, and already in 1499 Vespucci went to Suriname. The purpose of swimming was to study coastline. There he opened a settlement called Venezuela - little Venice. In 1500 he returned home, bringing 200 slaves. In 1501 and 1503 Amerigo repeated his travels, acting not only as a navigator, but also as a cartographer. He discovered the bay of Rio de Janeiro, the name of which he gave himself. From 1505 he served the king of Castile and did not participate in campaigns, only equipped other people’s expeditions.

Francis Drake

Many famous travelers and their discoveries benefited humanity. But among them there are also those who left behind a bad memory, since their names were associated with rather cruel events. The English Protestant, who sailed on a ship from the age of twelve, was no exception. He captured locals in the Caribbean, sold them into slavery to the Spaniards, attacked ships and fought with Catholics. Perhaps no one could match Drake in the number of captured foreign ships. His campaigns were sponsored by the Queen of England. In 1577, he went to South America to defeat the Spanish settlements. During the journey, he found Tierra del Fuego and a strait, which was later named after him. Having sailed around Argentina, Drake plundered the port of Valparaiso and two Spanish ships. Having reached California, he met the natives who presented the British with gifts of tobacco and bird feathers. Drake crossed Indian Ocean and returned to Plymouth, becoming the first British person to circumnavigate the world. He was admitted to the House of Commons and awarded the title of Sir. In 1595 he died in last trip to the Caribbean.

Afanasy Nikitin

Few famous Russian travelers have achieved the same heights as this native of Tver. Afanasy Nikitin became the first European to visit India. He traveled to the Portuguese colonialists and wrote “Walking across the Three Seas” - a most valuable literary and historical monument. The success of the expedition was ensured by the career of a merchant: Afanasy knew several languages and knew how to negotiate with people. On his journey, he visited Baku, lived in Persia for about two years and reached India by ship. Visiting several cities exotic country, he went to Parvat, where he stayed for a year and a half. After the province of Raichur, he headed to Russia, charting a route through the Arabian and Somali peninsulas. However, Afanasy Nikitin never made it home, because he fell ill and died near Smolensk, but his notes were preserved and provided the merchant with world fame.

AMUNDSEN Rual

Travel routes

1903-1906 - Arctic expedition on the ship "Joa". R. Amundsen was the first to travel through the Northwest Passage from Greenland to Alaska and determined the exact position of the North Magnetic Pole at that time.

1910-1912 - Antarctic expedition on the ship "Fram".

On December 14, 1911, a Norwegian traveler with four companions on a dog sled reached the South Pole of the earth, ahead of the expedition of the Englishman Robert Scott by a month.

1918-1920 - on the ship “Maud” R. Amundsen sailed across the Arctic Ocean along the coast of Eurasia.

1926 - together with the American Lincoln Ellsworth and the Italian Umberto Nobile R. Amundsen flew on the airship "Norway" along the route Spitsbergen - North Pole - Alaska.

1928 - during the search for the missing expedition of U. Nobile Amundsen in the Barents Sea, he died.

Name on geographical map

The name of the Norwegian traveler is the sea in Pacific Ocean, a mountain in East Antarctica, a bay near the coast of Canada and a basin in the Arctic Ocean.

The US Antarctic research station is named after the pioneers: the Amundsen-Scott Pole.

Amundsen R. My life. - M.: Geographgiz, 1959. - 166 p.: ill. - (Travel; Adventure; Science Fiction).

Amundsen R. South Pole: Per. from norwegian - M.: Armada, 2002. - 384 p.: ill. - (Green Series: Around the World).

Bouman-Larsen T. Amundsen: Trans. from norwegian - M.: Mol. Guard, 2005. - 520 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

The chapter dedicated to Amundsen was titled by Y. Golovanov “Travel gave me the happiness of friendship...” (pp. 12-16).

Davydov Yu.V. Captains are looking for a way: Tales. - M.: Det. lit., 1989. - 542 pp.: ill.

Pasetsky V.M., Blinov S.A. Roald Amundsen, 1872-1928. - M.: Nauka, 1997. - 201 p. - (Scientific-biography ser.).

Treshnikov A.F. Roald Amundsen. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1976. - 62 p.: ill.

Tsentkevich A., Tsentkevich Ch. The Man Whom the Sea Called: The Tale of R. Amundsen: Trans. with est. - Tallinn: Eesti Raamat, 1988. - 244 p.: ill.

Yakovlev A.S. Through the Ice: The Tale of a Polar Explorer. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1967. - 191 p.: ill. - (Pioneer means first).

Bellingshausen Faddey Faddeevich

Travel routes

1803-1806 - F.F. Bellingshausen took part in the first Russian circumnavigation under the command of I.F. Kruzenshtern on the ship “Nadezhda”. All the maps that were later included in the “Atlas for Captain Krusenstern’s trip around the world” were compiled by him.

1819-1821 - F.F. Bellingshausen led a round-the-world expedition to the South Pole.

On January 28, 1820, on the sloops “Vostok” (under the command of F.F. Bellingshausen) and “Mirny” (under the command of M.P. Lazarev), Russian sailors were the first to reach the shores of Antarctica.

Name on geographical map

The sea in the Pacific Ocean, a cape on Southern Sakhalin, an island in the Tuamotu archipelago, an ice shelf and basin in Antarctica.

A Russian Antarctic research station bears the name of the Russian navigator.

Moroz V. Antarctica: History of discovery / Artistic. E. Orlov. - M.: White City, 2001. - 47 p.: ill. - (Russian history).

Fedorovsky E.P. Bellingshausen: East. novel. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2001. - 541 p.: ill. - (Golden library of the historical novel).

BERING Vitus Jonassen

Danish navigator and explorer in Russian service

Travel routes

1725-1730 - V. Bering led the 1st Kamchatka expedition, the purpose of which was to search for a land isthmus between Asia and America (there was no exact information about the voyage of S. Dezhnev and F. Popov, who actually discovered the strait between the continents in 1648). The expedition on the ship "St. Gabriel" rounded the shores of Kamchatka and Chukotka, discovered the island of St. Lawrence and the Strait (now the Bering Strait).

1733-1741 - 2nd Kamchatka, or Great Northern Expedition. On the ship "St. Peter" Bering crossed the Pacific Ocean, reached Alaska, explored and mapped its shores. On the way back, during the winter on one of the islands (now the Commander Islands), Bering, like many members of his team, died.

Name on geographical map

In addition to the strait between Eurasia and North America, islands, the sea in the Pacific Ocean, and a cape on the coast are named after Vitus Bering Sea of Okhotsk and one of the largest glaciers in southern Alaska.

Konyaev N.M. Revision of Commander Bering. - M.: Terra-Kn. club, 2001. - 286 p. - (Fatherland).

Orlov O.P. To unknown shores: A story about the Kamchatka expeditions undertaken by Russian navigators in the 18th century under the leadership of V. Bering / Fig. V. Yudina. - M.: Malysh, 1987. - 23 p.: ill. - (Pages of the history of our Motherland).

Pasetsky V.M. Vitus Bering: 1681-1741. - M.: Nauka, 1982. - 174 p.: ill. - (Scientific-biography ser.).

The last expedition of Vitus Bering: Sat. - M.: Progress: Pangea, 1992. - 188 p.: ill.

Sopotsko A.A. The history of V. Bering’s voyage on the boat “St. Gabriel" to the Arctic Ocean. - M.: Nauka, 1983. - 247 p.: ill.

Chekurov M.V. Mysterious expeditions. - Ed. 2nd, revised, additional - M.: Nauka, 1991. - 152 p.: ill. - (Man and the environment).

Chukovsky N.K. Bering. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1961. - 127 p.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

VAMBERY Arminius (Herman)

Hungarian orientalist

Travel routes

1863 - A. Vamberi's journey under the guise of a dervish Central Asia from Tehran through the Turkmen desert along the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea to Khiva, Mashhad, Herat, Samarkand and Bukhara.

Vambery A. Traveling through Central Asia: Trans. with him. - M.: Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, 2003. - 320 p. - (Stories about Eastern countries).

Vamberi A. Bukhara, or History of Mavarounnahr: Excerpts from the book. - Tashkent: Literary Publishing House. and isk-va, 1990. - 91 p.

Tikhonov N.S. Vambery. - Ed. 14th. - M.: Mysl, 1974. - 45 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

VANCOUVER George

English navigator

Travel routes

1772-1775, 1776-1780 - J. Vancouver, as a cabin boy and midshipman, participated in the second and third voyages around the world by J. Cook.

1790-1795 - a round-the-world expedition under the command of J. Vancouver explored the northwestern coast of North America. It was determined that the proposed waterway connecting the Pacific Ocean and Hudson Bay did not exist.

Name on geographical map

Several hundred geographical objects are named in honor of J. Vancouver, including an island, bay, city, river, ridge (Canada), lake, cape, mountain, city (USA), bay (New Zealand).

Malakhovsky K.V. In the new Albion. - M.: Nauka, 1990. - 123 p.: ill. - (Stories about Eastern countries).

GAMA Vasco yes

Portuguese navigator

Travel routes

1497-1499 - Vasco da Gama led an expedition that opened a sea route to India around the African continent for Europeans.

1502 - second expedition to India.

1524 - the third expedition of Vasco da Gama, already as Viceroy of India. He died during the expedition.

Vyazov E.I. Vasco da Gama: Discoverer of the sea route to India. - M.: Geographizdat, 1956. - 39 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

Camões L., de. Sonnets; Lusiads: Trans. from Portugal - M.: EKSMO-Press, 1999. - 477 p.: ill. - (Home library of poetry).

Read the poem "The Lusiads".

Kent L.E. They walked with Vasco da Gama: A Tale / Trans. from English Z. Bobyr // Fingaret S.I. Great Benin; Kent L.E. They walked with Vasco da Gama; Zweig S. Magellan's feat: East. stories. - M.: TERRA: UNICUM, 1999. - P. 194-412.

Kunin K.I. Vasco da Gama. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1947. - 322 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Khazanov A.M. The Mystery of Vasco da Gama. - M.: Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, 2000. - 152 p.: ill.

Hart G. The sea route to India: A story about the voyages and exploits of Portuguese sailors, as well as about the life and times of Vasco da Gama, admiral, viceroy of India and Count Vidigueira: Trans. from English - M.: Geographizdat, 1959. - 349 p.: ill.

GOLOVNIN Vasily Mikhailovich

Russian navigator

Travel routes

1807-1811 - V.M. Golovnin leads the circumnavigation of the world on the sloop “Diana”.

1811 - V.M. Golovnin conducts research on the Kuril and Shantar Islands, the Tatar Strait.

1817-1819 - circumnavigation of the world on the sloop "Kamchatka", during which a description of part of the Aleutian ridge and the Commander Islands was made.

Name on geographical map

Several bays, a strait and an underwater mountain are named after the Russian navigator, as well as a city in Alaska and a volcano on the island of Kunashir.

Golovnin V.M. Notes from the fleet of Captain Golovnin about his adventures in captivity of the Japanese in 1811, 1812 and 1813, including his comments about the Japanese state and people. - Khabarovsk: Book. publishing house, 1972. - 525 pp.: ill.

Golovnin V.M. A voyage around the world made on the sloop of war "Kamchatka" in 1817, 1818 and 1819 by Captain Golovnin. - M.: Mysl, 1965. - 384 p.: ill.

Golovnin V.M. A voyage on the sloop "Diana" from Kronstadt to Kamchatka, made under the command of the fleet of Lieutenant Golovnin in 1807-1811. - M.: Geographizdat, 1961. - 480 pp.: ill.

Golovanov Ya. Sketches about scientists. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1983. - 415 pp.: ill.

The chapter dedicated to Golovnin is called “I feel a lot...” (pp. 73-79).

Davydov Yu.V. Evenings in Kolmovo: The Tale of G. Uspensky; And before your eyes...: An experience in the biography of a marine marine painter: [About V.M. Golovnin]. - M.: Book, 1989. - 332 pp.: ill. - (Writers about writers).

Davydov Yu.V. Golovnin. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1968. - 206 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Davydov Yu.V. Three admirals: [About D.N. Senyavin, V.M. Golovnin, P.S. Nakhimov]. - M.: Izvestia, 1996. - 446 p.: ill.

Divin V.A. The story of a glorious navigator. - M.: Mysl, 1976. - 111 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

Lebedenko A.G. The sails of ships rustle: A novel. - Odessa: Mayak, 1989. - 229 p.: ill. - (Sea b-ka).

Firsov I.I. Twice Captured: East. novel. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2002. - 469 p.: ill. - (Golden library of the historical novel: Russian travelers).

HUMBOLDT Alexander, background

German natural scientist, geographer, traveler

Travel routes

1799-1804 - expedition to Central and South America.

1829 - travel across Russia: the Urals, Altai, Caspian Sea.

Name on geographical map

Ranges in Central Asia and North America, mountain on an island New Caledonia, glacier in Greenland, cold current in the Pacific Ocean, river, lake and row settlements in USA.

A number of plants, minerals and even a crater on the Moon are named after the German scientist.

The university in Berlin is named after the brothers Alexander and Wilhelm Humboldt.

Zabelin I.M. Return to descendants: A novel-study of the life and work of A. Humboldt. - M.: Mysl, 1988. - 331 p.: ill.

Safonov V.A. Alexander Humboldt. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1959. - 191 p.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Skurla G. Alexander Humboldt / Abbr. lane with him. G. Shevchenko. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1985. - 239 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

DEZHNEV Semyon Ivanovich

(c. 1605-1673)

Russian explorer, navigator

Travel routes

1638-1648 - S.I. Dezhnev took part in river and land campaigns in the area of the Yana River, Oymyakon and Kolyma.

1648 - a fishing expedition led by S.I. Dezhnev and F.A. Popov circled the Chukotka Peninsula and reached the Gulf of Anadyr. This is how the strait between the two continents was discovered, which was later named the Bering Strait.

Name on geographical map

A cape on the northeastern tip of Asia, a ridge in Chukotka and a bay in the Bering Strait are named after Dezhnev.

Bakhrevsky V.A. Semyon Dezhnev / Fig. L. Khailova. - M.: Malysh, 1984. - 24 p.: ill. - (Pages of the history of our Motherland).

Bakhrevsky V.A. Walking towards the sun: East. story. - Novosibirsk: Book. publishing house, 1986. - 190 pp.: ill. - (Fates connected with Siberia).

Belov M. The feat of Semyon Dezhnev. - M.: Mysl, 1973. - 223 p.: ill.

Demin L.M. Semyon Dezhnev - pioneer: East. novel. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2002. - 444 p.: ill. - (Golden library of the historical novel: Russian travelers).

Demin L.M. Semyon Dezhnev. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1990. - 334 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Kedrov V.N. To the ends of the world: East. story. - L.: Lenizdat, 1986. - 285 p.: ill.

Markov S.N. Tamo-rus Maclay: Stories. - M.: Sov. writer, 1975. - 208 pp.: ill.

Read the story “Dezhnev’s Feat.”

Nikitin N.I. Explorer Semyon Dezhnev and his time. - M.: Rosspan, 1999. - 190 pp.: ill.

DRAKE Francis

English navigator and pirate

Travel routes

1567 - F. Drake took part in J. Hawkins' expedition to the West Indies.

Since 1570 - annual pirate raids in the Caribbean Sea.

1577-1580 - F. Drake led the second European voyage around the world after Magellan.

Name on geographical map

The most famous navigator is named after the brave navigator. wide strait on globe, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

Francis Drake / Retelling by D. Berkhin; Artist L.Durasov. - M.: White City, 1996. - 62 p.: ill. - (History of piracy).

Malakhovsky K.V. Round-the-world run of the "Golden Hind". - M.: Nauka, 1980. - 168 p.: ill. - (Countries and peoples).

The same story can be found in K. Malakhovsky’s collection “Five Captains”.

Mason F. van W. The Golden Admiral: Novel: Trans. from English - M.: Armada, 1998. - 474 p.: ill. - (Great pirates in novels).

Muller V.K. Queen Elizabeth's Pirate: Trans. from English - St. Petersburg: LENKO: Gangut, 1993. - 254 p.: ill.

DUMONT-DURVILLE Jules Sebastien Cesar

French navigator and oceanographer

Travel routes

1826-1828 - circumnavigation of the world on the ship "Astrolabe", as a result of which part of the coasts of New Zealand and New Guinea were mapped and examined island groups in the Pacific Ocean. On the island of Vanikoro, Dumont-D'Urville discovered traces of the lost expedition of J. La Perouse.

1837-1840 - Antarctic expedition.

Name on geographical map

The sea in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Antarctica is named after the navigator.

The French Antarctic scientific station is named after Dumont-D'Urville.

Varshavsky A.S. Travel of Dumont-D'Urville. - M.: Mysl, 1977. - 59 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

The fifth part of the book is called “Captain Dumont D'Urville and his belated discovery” (pp. 483-504).

IBN BATTUTA Abu Abdallah Muhammad

Ibn al-Lawati at-Tanji

Arab traveler, wandering merchant

Travel routes

1325-1349 - Having set off from Morocco on a hajj (pilgrimage), Ibn Battuta visited Egypt, Arabia, Iran, Syria, Crimea, reached the Volga and lived for some time in the Golden Horde. Then, through Central Asia and Afghanistan, he arrived in India, visited Indonesia and China.

1349-1352 - travel to Muslim Spain.

1352-1353 - travel through Western and Central Sudan.

At the request of the ruler of Morocco, Ibn Battuta, together with a scientist named Juzai, wrote the book “Rihla”, where he summarized the information about the Muslim world that he collected during his travels.

Ibragimov N. Ibn Battuta and his travels in Central Asia. - M.: Nauka, 1988. - 126 p.: ill.

Miloslavsky G. Ibn Battuta. - M.: Mysl, 1974. - 78 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

Timofeev I. Ibn Battuta. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1983. - 230 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

COLUMBUS Christopher

Portuguese and Spanish navigator

Travel routes

1492-1493 - H. Columbus led the Spanish expedition, the purpose of which was to find the shortest sea route from Europe to India. During the voyage on three caravels “Santa Maria”, “Pinta” and “Nina” the Sargasso Sea was discovered, Bahamas, Cuba and Haiti.

October 12, 1492, when Columbus reached the island of Samana, is recognized as the official day of the discovery of America by Europeans.

During three subsequent expeditions across the Atlantic (1493-1496, 1498-1500, 1502-1504), Columbus discovered the Greater Antilles, part of the Lesser Antilles Antilles, coasts of the South and Central America and the Caribbean Sea.

Until the end of his life, Columbus was confident that he had reached India.

Name on geographical map

A state in South America, mountains and plateaus in North America, a glacier in Alaska, a river in Canada and several cities in the USA are named after Christopher Columbus.

In the United States of America there is Columbia University.

Travels of Christopher Columbus: Diaries, letters, documents / Transl. from Spanish and comment. Ya. Sveta. - M.: Geographizdat, 1961. - 515 p.: ill.

Blasco Ibañez V. In Search of the Great Khan: A Novel: Trans. from Spanish - Kaliningrad: Book. publishing house, 1987. - 558 pp.: ill. - (Sea novel).

Verlinden C. Christopher Columbus: Mirage and Perseverance: Trans. with him. // Conquerors of America. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997. - P. 3-144.

Irving V. History of the life and travels of Christopher Columbus: Trans. from English // Irving V. Collection. cit.: In 5 vols.: T. 3, 4. - M.: Terra - Book. club, 2002-2003.

Clients A.E. Christopher Columbus / Artist. A. Chauzov. - M.: White City, 2003. - 63 p.: ill. - (Historical novel).

Kovalevskaya O.T. The admiral's brilliant mistake: How Christopher Columbus, without knowing it, discovered New World, which was later called America / Lit. processing by T. Pesotskaya; Artist N. Koshkin, G. Alexandrova, A. Skorikov. - M.: Interbook, 1997. - 18 p.: ill. - (The greatest journeys).

Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. narratives. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000. - 415 p.: ill. - (Life of remarkable people: Biography of the library of F. Pavlenkov).

Cooper J.F. Mercedes from Castile, or Journey to Cathay: Trans. from English - M.: Patriot, 1992. - 407 p.: ill.

Lange P.V. The Great Wanderer: The Life of Christopher Columbus: Trans. with him. - M.: Mysl, 1984. - 224 p.: ill.

Magidovich I.P. Christopher Columbus. - M.: Geographizdat, 1956. - 35 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

Reifman L. From the harbor of hopes - into the seas of anxiety: The life and times of Christopher Columbus: East. chronicles. - St. Petersburg: Lyceum: Soyuztheater, 1992. - 302 p.: ill.

Rzhonsnitsky V.B. Discovery of America by Columbus. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Publishing House. University, 1994. - 92 p.: ill.

Sabatini R. Columbus: Novel: Trans. from English - M.: Republic, 1992. - 286 p.

Svet Ya.M. Columbus. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1973. - 368 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Subbotin V.A. Great discoveries: Columbus; Vasco da Gama; Magellan. - M.: Publishing house URAO, 1998. - 269 p.: ill.

Chronicles of the Discovery of America: New Spain: Book. 1: East. documents: Per. from Spanish - M.: Academic project, 2000. - 496 p.: ill. - (B-Latin America).

Shishova Z.K. The Great Voyage: East. novel. - M.: Det. lit., 1972. - 336 pp.: ill.

Edberg R. Letters to Columbus; Spirit of the Valley / Transl. with Swedish L. Zhdanova. - M.: Progress, 1986. - 361 p.: ill.

KRASHENINNIKOV Stepan Petrovich

Russian scientist-naturalist, first explorer of Kamchatka

Travel routes

1733-1743 - S.P. Krasheninnikov took part in the 2nd Kamchatka expedition. First, under the guidance of academicians G.F. Miller and I.G. Gmelin, he studied Altai and Transbaikalia. In October 1737, Krasheninnikov independently went to Kamchatka, where until June 1741 he conducted research, based on the materials of which he subsequently compiled the first “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” (vols. 1-2, ed. 1756).

Name on geographical map

An island near Kamchatka, a cape on Karaginsky Island and a mountain near Lake Kronotskoye are named after S.P. Krasheninnikov.

Krasheninnikov S.P. Description of the land of Kamchatka: In 2 volumes - Reprint. ed. - St. Petersburg: Science; Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky: Kamshat, 1994.

Varshavsky A.S. Sons of the Fatherland. - M.: Det. lit., 1987. - 303 pp.: ill.

Mixon I.L. The man who...: East. story. - L.: Det. lit., 1989. - 208 pp.: ill.

Fradkin N.G. S.P. Krasheninnikov. - M.: Mysl, 1974. - 60 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

Eidelman N.Ya. What is there beyond the sea-ocean?: A story about the Russian scientist S.P. Krasheninnikov, the discoverer of Kamchatka. - M.: Malysh, 1984. - 28 p.: ill. - (Pages of the history of our Motherland).

KRUZENSHTERN Ivan Fedorovich

Russian navigator, admiral

Travel routes

1803-1806 - I.F. Kruzenshtern led the first Russian round-the-world expedition on the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva”. I.F. Kruzenshtern - author of the “Atlas of the South Sea” (vols. 1-2, 1823-1826)

Name on geographical map

The strait in the northern part bears the name of I.F. Kruzenshtern Kuril Islands, two atolls in the Pacific Ocean and the southeastern passage of the Korea Strait.

Krusenstern I.F. Voyages around the world in 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the ships Nadezhda and Neva. - Vladivostok: Dalnevost. book publishing house, 1976. - 392 pp.: ill. - (Far Eastern history library).

Zabolotskikh B.V. In honor of the Russian flag: The Tale of I.F. Kruzenshtern, who led the first voyage of Russians around the world in 1803-1806, and O.E. Kotzebue, who made an unprecedented voyage on the brig “Rurik” in 1815-1818. - M.: Autopan, 1996. - 285 p.: ill.

Zabolotskikh B.V. Petrovsky Fleet: East. essays; In honor of the Russian flag: A Tale; The second journey of Kruzenshtern: A Tale. - M.: Classics, 2002. - 367 pp.: ill.

Pasetsky V.M. Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern. - M.: Nauka, 1974. - 176 p.: ill.

Firsov I.I. Russian Columbus: History of the round-the-world expedition of I. Kruzenshtern and Yu. Lisyansky. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001. - 426 p.: ill. - (Great geographical discoveries).

Chukovsky N.K. Captain Krusenstern: A Tale. - M.: Bustard, 2002. - 165 p.: ill. - (Honor and courage).

Steinberg E.L. Glorious sailors Ivan Krusenstern and Yuri Lisyansky. - M.: Detgiz, 1954. - 224 p.: ill.

COOK James

English navigator

Travel routes

1768-1771 - round-the-world expedition on the frigate Endeavor under the command of J. Cook. Defined island status New Zealand, Big open barrier reef and the east coast of Australia.

1772-1775 - the goal of the second expedition headed by Cook on the Resolution ship (to find and map the Southern Continent) was not achieved. As a result of the search, the South Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, Norfolk, and South Georgia were discovered.

1776-1779 - Cook's third round-the-world expedition on the ships "Resolution" and "Discovery" was aimed at finding the Northwest Passage connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The passage was not found, but the Hawaiian Islands and part of the Alaskan coast were discovered. On the way back, J. Cook was killed on one of the islands by the aborigines.

Name on geographical map

The most are named after the English navigator. high mountain New Zealand, a bay in the Pacific Ocean, islands in Polynesia and the strait between the North and Southern Islands New Zealand.

James Cook's first circumnavigation of the world: Sailing on the ship Endeavor in 1768-1771. / J. Cook. - M.: Geographizdat, 1960. - 504 p.: ill.

James Cook's second voyage: Voyage to the South Pole and around the world in 1772-1775. / J. Cook. - M.: Mysl, 1964. - 624 p.: ill. - (Geographical ser.).

James Cook's third voyage around the world: Navigation in the Pacific Ocean 1776-1780. / J. Cook. - M.: Mysl, 1971. - 636 p.: ill.

Vladimirov V.I. Cook. - M.: Iskra revolution, 1933. - 168 p.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

McLean A. Captain Cook: History of Geography. discoveries of the great navigator: Trans. from English - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001. - 155 p.: ill. - (Great geographical discoveries).

Middleton H. Captain Cook: Famous navigator: Per. from English / Ill. A. Marx. - M.: AsCON, 1998. - 31 p.: ill. - (Great names).

Svet Ya.M. James Cook. - M.: Mysl, 1979. - 110 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

Chukovsky N.K. Frigate Drivers: A Book about Great Navigators. - M.: ROSMEN, 2001. - 509 p. - (Golden Triangle).

The first part of the book is titled “Captain James Cook and his three voyages around the world” (p. 7-111).

LAZAREV Mikhail Petrovich

Russian naval commander and navigator

Travel routes

1813-1816 - circumnavigation of the world on the ship "Suvorov" from Kronstadt to the shores of Alaska and back.

1819-1821 - commanding the sloop “Mirny”, M.P. Lazarev participated in a round-the-world expedition under the leadership of F.F. Bellingshausen.

1822-1824 - M.P. Lazarev led round the world expedition on the frigate "Cruiser".

Name on geographical map

A sea in the Atlantic Ocean, an ice shelf and an underwater trench in East Antarctica, and a village on the Black Sea coast are named after M.P. Lazarev.

The Russian Antarctic scientific station also bears the name of M.P. Lazarev.

Ostrovsky B.G. Lazarev. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1966. - 176 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Firsov I.I. Half a century under sail. - M.: Mysl, 1988. - 238 p.: ill.

Firsov I.I. Antarctica and Navarin: A Novel. - M.: Armada, 1998. - 417 p.: ill. - (Russian generals).

LIVINGSTON David

English explorer of Africa

Travel routes

Since 1841 - numerous travels through the interior regions of South and Central Africa.

1849-1851 - studies of the Lake Ngami area.

1851-1856 - research of the Zambezi River. D. Livingston discovered the Victoria Falls and was the first European to cross the African continent.

1858-1864 - exploration of the Zambezi River, lakes Chilwa and Nyasa.

1866-1873 - several expeditions in search of the sources of the Nile.

Name on geographical map

Waterfalls on the Congo River and a city on the Zambezi River are named after the English traveler.

Livingston D. Travels around South Africa: Per. from English / Ill. author. - M.: EKSMO-Press, 2002. - 475 p.: ill. - (Compass Rose: Epochs; Continents; Events; Seas; Discoveries).

Livingston D., Livingston C. Travel along the Zambezi, 1858-1864: Trans. from English - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001. - 460 pp.: ill.

Adamovich M.P. Livingston. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1938. - 376 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Votte G. David Livingston: The Life of an African Explorer: Trans. with him. - M.: Mysl, 1984. - 271 p.: ill.

Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. narratives. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000. - 415 p.: ill. - (Life of remarkable people: Biography of the library of F. Pavlenkov).

MAGELLAN Fernand

(c. 1480-1521)

Portuguese navigator

Travel routes

1519-1521 - F. Magellan led the first circumnavigation in the history of mankind. Magellan's expedition discovered the coast of South America south of La Plata, circled the continent, crossed the strait, which was later named after the navigator, then crossed the Pacific Ocean and reached Philippine Islands. On one of them, Magellan was killed. After his death, the expedition was led by J.S. Elcano, thanks to whom only one of the ships (Victoria) and the last eighteen sailors (out of two hundred and sixty-five crew members) were able to reach the shores of Spain.

Name on geographical map

The Strait of Magellan is located between the mainland of South America and the archipelago Tierra del Fuego, connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

Boytsov M.A. Magellan's Path / Artist. S. Boyko. - M.: Malysh, 1991. - 19 p.: ill.

Kunin K.I. Magellan. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1940. - 304 p.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Lange P.V. Like the sun: The life of F. Magellan and the first circumnavigation of the world: Trans. with him. - M.: Progress, 1988. - 237 p.: ill.

Pigafetta A. Magellan's Journey: Trans. with it.; Mitchell M. El Cano - the first circumnavigator: Trans. from English - M.: Mysl, 2000. - 302 p.: ill. - (Travel and travelers).

Subbotin V.A. Great discoveries: Columbus; Vasco da Gama; Magellan. - M.: Publishing house URAO, 1998. - 269 p.: ill.

Travinsky V.M. Navigator's Star: Magellan: East. story. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1969. - 191 p.: ill.

Khvilevitskaya E.M. How the earth turned out to be a ball / Artist. A. Ostromentsky. - M.: Interbook, 1997. - 18 p.: ill. - (The greatest journeys).

Zweig S. Magellan; Amerigo: Transl. with him. - M.: AST, 2001. - 317 p.: ill. - (World classics).

MIKLOUKHO-MACLAY Nikolai Nikolaevich

Russian scientist, explorer of Oceania and New Guinea

Travel routes

1866-1867 - travel to the Canary Islands and Morocco.

1871-1886 - study of indigenous peoples South-East Asia, Australia and Oceania, including the Papuans of the North-Eastern coast of New Guinea.

Name on geographical map

The Miklouho-Maclay coast is located in New Guinea.

Also named after Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay is the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Man from the Moon: Diaries, articles, letters of N.N. Miklouho-Maclay. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1982. - 336 pp.: ill. - (Arrow).

Balandin R.K. N.N. Miklouho-Maclay: Book. for students / Fig. author. - M.: Education, 1985. - 96 p.: ill. - (People of science).

Golovanov Ya. Sketches about scientists. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1983. - 415 pp.: ill.

The chapter dedicated to Miklouho-Maclay is titled “I foresee no end to my travels...” (pp. 233-236).

Greenop F.S. About the one who wandered alone: Trans. from English - M.: Nauka, 1986. - 260 pp.: ill.

Kolesnikov M.S. Miklukho Maclay. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1965. - 272 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Markov S.N. Tamo - rus Maklay: Stories. - M.: Sov. writer, 1975. - 208 pp.: ill.

Orlov O.P. Come back to us, Maclay!: A story. - M.: Det. lit., 1987. - 48 p.: ill.

Putilov B.N. N.N. Miklouho-Maclay: Traveler, scientist, humanist. - M.: Progress, 1985. - 280 pp.: ill.

Tynyanova L.N. Friend from Afar: A Tale. - M.: Det. lit., 1976. - 332 pp.: ill.

NANSEN Fridtjof

Norwegian polar explorer

Travel routes

1888 - F. Nansen made the first ski crossing in history across Greenland.

1893-1896 - Nansen on the ship "Fram" drifted across the Arctic Ocean from the New Siberian Islands to the Spitsbergen archipelago. As a result of the expedition, extensive oceanographic and meteorological material was collected, but North Pole Nansen failed to reach.

1900 - expedition to study the currents of the Arctic Ocean.

Name on geographical map

An underwater basin and an underwater ridge in the Arctic Ocean, as well as a number of geographical features in the Arctic and Antarctic, are named after Nansen.

Nansen F. To the Land of the Future: The Great Northern Route from Europe to Siberia through the Kara Sea / Authorized. lane from norwegian A. and P. Hansen. - Krasnoyarsk: Book. publishing house, 1982. - 335 pp.: ill.

Nansen F. Through the eyes of a friend: Chapters from the book “Through the Caucasus to the Volga”: Trans. with him. - Makhachkala: Dagestan book. publishing house, 1981. - 54 p.: ill.

Nansen F. “Fram” in the Polar Sea: At 2 o’clock: Per. from norwegian - M.: Geographizdat, 1956.

Kublitsky G.I. Fridtjof Nansen: His life and extraordinary adventures. - M.: Det. lit., 1981. - 287 pp.: ill.

Nansen-Heyer L. Book about the father: Trans. from norwegian - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1986. - 512 p.: ill.

Pasetsky V.M. Fridtjof Nansen, 1861-1930. - M.: Nauka, 1986. - 335 p.: ill. - (Scientific-biography ser.).

Sannes T.B. "Fram": Adventures of Polar Expeditions: Trans. with him. - L.: Shipbuilding, 1991. - 271 p.: ill. - (Notice ships).

Talanov A. Nansen. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1960. - 304 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Holt K. Competition: [About the expeditions of R.F. Scott and R. Amundsen]; Wandering: [About the expedition of F. Nansen and J. Johansen] / Trans. from norwegian L. Zhdanova. - M.: Physical culture and sport, 1987. - 301 p.: ill. - (Unusual travels).

Please note that this book (in the appendix) contains an essay famous traveler Thor Heyerdahl's Fridtjof Nansen: A Warm Heart in a Cold World.

Tsentkevich A., Tsentkevich Ch. Who will you become, Fridtjof: [Tales of F. Nansen and R. Amundsen]. - Kyiv: Dnipro, 1982. - 502 p.: ill.

Shackleton E. Fridtjof Nansen - researcher: Trans. from English - M.: Progress, 1986. - 206 p.: ill.

NIKITIN Afanasy

(? - 1472 or 1473)

Russian merchant, traveler in Asia

Travel routes

1466-1472 - A. Nikitin’s journey through the countries of the Middle East and India. On the way back, stopping at a Cafe (Feodosia), Afanasy Nikitin wrote a description of his travels and adventures - “Walking across Three Seas.”

Nikitin A. Walking beyond the three seas of Afanasy Nikitin. - L.: Nauka, 1986. - 212 p.: ill. - (Lit. monuments).

Nikitin A. Walking beyond three seas: 1466-1472. - Kaliningrad: Amber Tale, 2004. - 118 p.: ill.

Varzhapetyan V.V. The Tale of a Merchant, a Piebald Horse and a Talking Bird / Fig. N.Nepomniachtchi. - M.: Det. lit., 1990. - 95 p.: ill.

Vitashevskaya M.N. The wanderings of Afanasy Nikitin. - M.: Mysl, 1972. - 118 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

All peoples are one: [Sb.]. - M.: Sirin, B.g. - 466 pp.: ill. - (History of the Fatherland in novels, stories, documents).

The collection includes V. Pribytkov’s story “The Tver Guest” and the book by Afanasy Nikitin himself “Walking across Three Seas”.

Grimberg F.I. Seven songs of a Russian foreigner: Nikitin: Ist. novel. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2003. - 424 p.: ill. - (Golden library of the historical novel: Russian travelers).

Kachaev Yu.G. Far away / Fig. M. Romadina. - M.: Malysh, 1982. - 24 p.: ill.

Kunin K.I. Beyond Three Seas: The Journey of the Tver Merchant Afanasy Nikitin: Ist. story. - Kaliningrad: Amber Tale, 2002. - 199 p.: ill. - (Treasured pages).

Murashova K. Afanasy Nikitin: The Tale of the Tver Merchant / Artist. A. Chauzov. - M.: White City, 2005. - 63 p.: ill. - (Historical novel).

Semenov L.S. Travel of Afanasy Nikitin. - M.: Nauka, 1980. - 145 p.: ill. - (History of science and technology).

Soloviev A.P. Walking beyond three seas: a novel. - M.: Terra, 1999. - 477 p. - (Fatherland).

Tager E.M. The story of Afanasy Nikitin. - L.: Det. lit., 1966. - 104 p.: ill.

PIRI Robert Edwin

American polar explorer

Travel routes

1892 and 1895 - two trips through Greenland.

From 1902 to 1905 - several unsuccessful attempts to conquer the North Pole.

Finally, R. Peary announced that he had reached the North Pole on April 6, 1909. However, seventy years after the death of the traveler, when, according to his will, the expedition diaries were declassified, it turned out that Piri was actually unable to reach the Pole; he stopped at 89˚55΄ N.

Name on geographical map

Peninsula on far north Greenland is called Peary Land.

Pirie R. North Pole; Amundsen R. South Pole. - M.: Mysl, 1981. - 599 p.: ill.

Pay attention to the article by F. Treshnikov “Robert Peary and the conquest of the North Pole” (p. 225-242).

Piri R. North Pole / Transl. from English L.Petkevichiute. - Vilnius: Vituris, 1988. - 239 p.: ill. - (World of Discovery).

Karpov G.V. Robert Peary. - M.: Geographizdat, 1956. - 39 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

POLO Marco

(c. 1254-1324)

Venetian merchant, traveler

Travel routes

1271-1295 - M. Polo’s journey through the countries of Central and East Asia.

The Venetian’s memories of his wanderings in the East compiled the famous “Book of Marco Polo” (1298), which for almost 600 years remained the most important source of information about China and other Asian countries for the West.

Polo M. Book about the diversity of the world / Trans. with old French I.P. Minaeva; Preface J.L. Borges. - St. Petersburg: Amphora, 1999. - 381 p.: ill. - (Personal library of Borges).

Polo M. Book of Wonders: Excerpt from the “Book of Wonders of the World” from the National. libraries of France: Transl. from fr. - M.: White City, 2003. - 223 p.: ill.

Davidson E., Davis G. Son of Heaven: The Wanderings of Marco Polo / Trans. from English M. Kondratieva. - St. Petersburg: ABC: Terra - Book. club, 1997. - 397 p. - ( New Earth: Fantasy).

A fantasy novel on the theme of the travels of a Venetian merchant.

Maink V. The Amazing Adventures of Marco Polo: [Hist. story] / Abbr. lane with him. L. Lungina. - St. Petersburg: Brask: Epoch, 1993. - 303 pp.: ill. - (Version).

Pesotskaya T.E. Treasures of a Venetian merchant: How Marco Polo a quarter of a century ago wandered around the East and wrote a famous book about various miracles that no one wanted to believe in / Artist. I. Oleinikov. - M.: Interbook, 1997. - 18 p.: ill. - (The greatest journeys).

Pronin V. Life of the great Venetian traveler Messer Marco Polo / Artist. Yu.Saevich. - M.: Kron-Press, 1993. - 159 p.: ill.

Tolstikov A.Ya. Marco Polo: The Venetian Wanderer / Artist. A. Chauzov. - M.: White City, 2004. - 63 p.: ill. - (Historical novel).

Hart G. The Venetian Marco Polo: Trans. from English - M.: TERRA-Kn. club, 1999. - 303 p. - (Portraits).

Shklovsky V.B. Earth scout - Marco Polo: East. story. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1969. - 223 pp.: ill. - (Pioneer means first).

Ers J. Marco Polo: Trans. from fr. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1998. - 348 pp.: ill. - (Mark on history).

PRZHEVALSKY Nikolai Mikhailovich

Russian geographer, explorer of Central Asia

Travel routes

1867-1868 - research expeditions to the Amur region and the Ussuri region.

1870-1885 - 4 expeditions to Central Asia.

N.M. Przhevalsky presented the scientific results of the expeditions in a number of books, giving a detailed description of the relief, climate, vegetation and fauna of the studied territories.

Name on geographical map

A ridge in Central Asia and a city in the southeastern part of the Issyk-Kul region (Kyrgyzstan) bear the name of the Russian geographer.

The wild horse, first described by scientists, is called Przewalski's horse.

Przhevalsky N.M. Travel in the Ussuri region, 1867-1869. - Vladivostok: Dalnevost. book publishing house, 1990. - 328 pp.: ill.

Przhevalsky N.M. Traveling around Asia. - M.: Armada-press, 2001. - 343 p.: ill. - (Green Series: Around the World).

Gavrilenkov V.M. Russian traveler N.M. Przhevalsky. - Smolensk: Moscow. worker: Smolensk department, 1989. - 143 p.: ill.

Golovanov Ya. Sketches about scientists. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1983. - 415 pp.: ill.

The chapter dedicated to Przhevalsky is called “The exclusive good is freedom...” (pp. 272-275).

Grimailo Ya.V. The Great Ranger: A Tale. - Ed. 2nd, revised and additional - Kyiv: Molod, 1989. - 314 p.: ill.

Kozlov I.V. Great traveler: The life and work of N.M. Przhevalsky, the first explorer of the nature of Central Asia. - M.: Mysl, 1985. - 144 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. narratives. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000. - 415 p.: ill. - (Life of remarkable people: Biography of the library of F. Pavlenkov).

Acceleration L.E. “Ascetics are needed like the sun...” // Acceleration L.E. Seven lives. - M.: Det. lit., 1992. - pp. 35-72.

Repin L.B. “And again I return...”: Przhevalsky: Pages of Life. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1983. - 175 pp.: ill. - (Pioneer means first).

Khmelnitsky S.I. Przhevalsky. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1950. - 175 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Yusov B.V. N.M. Przhevalsky: Book. for students. - M.: Education, 1985. - 95 p.: ill. - (People of science).

PRONCHISHCHEV Vasily Vasilievich

Russian navigator

Travel routes

1735-1736 - V.V. Pronchishchev took part in the 2nd Kamchatka expedition. A detachment under his command explored the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the mouth of the Lena to Cape Thaddeus (Taimyr).

Name on geographical map

The name of V.V. Pronchishchev is part of eastern shore the Taimyr Peninsula, a ridge (hill) in the north-west of Yakutia and a bay in the Laptev Sea.

Golubev G.N. “Descendants for news...”: Historical document. stories. - M.: Det. lit., 1986. - 255 pp.: ill.

Krutogorov Yu.A. Where Neptune leads: East. story. - M.: Det. lit., 1990. - 270 pp.: ill.

SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKY Petr Petrovich

(until 1906 - Semenov)

Russian scientist, explorer of Asia

Travel routes

1856-1857 - expedition to the Tien Shan.

1888 - expedition to Turkestan and the Trans-Caspian region.

Name on geographical map

A ridge in Nanshan, a glacier and a peak in the Tien Shan, and mountains in Alaska and Spitsbergen are named after Semenov-Tian-Shansky.

Semenov-Tyan-Shansky P.P. Travel to Tien Shan: 1856-1857. - M.: Geographgiz, 1958. - 277 p.: ill.

Aldan-Semenov A.I. For you, Russia: Stories. - M.: Sovremennik, 1983. - 320 pp.: ill.

Aldan-Semenov A.I. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1965. - 304 pp.: ill. - (Life is remarkable. People).

Antoshko Y., Soloviev A. At the origins of Yaxartes. - M.: Mysl, 1977. - 128 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

Dyadyuchenko L.B. A pearl in the barracks wall: A chronicle novel. - Frunze: Mektep, 1986. - 218 p.: ill.

Kozlov I.V. Petr Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. - M.: Education, 1983. - 96 p.: ill. - (People of science).

Kozlov I.V., Kozlova A.V. Petr Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky: 1827-1914. - M.: Nauka, 1991. - 267 p.: ill. - (Scientific-biography ser.).

Acceleration L.E. Tian-Shansky // Acceleration L.E. Seven lives. - M.: Det. lit., 1992. - pp. 9-34.

SCOTT Robert Falcon

English explorer of Antarctica

Travel routes

1901-1904 - Antarctic expedition on the Discovery ship. As a result of this expedition, King Edward VII Land, the Transantarctic Mountains, the Ross Ice Shelf were discovered, and Victoria Land was explored.

1910-1912 - R. Scott's expedition to Antarctica on the ship "Terra-Nova".

On January 18, 1912 (33 days later than R. Amundsen), Scott and four of his companions reached the South Pole. On the way back, all the travelers died.

Name on geographical map

An island and two glaciers off the coast of Antarctica are named in honor of Robert Scott, part west coast Victoria Land (Scott Coast) and mountains in Enderby Land.

The US Antarctic research station is named after the first conquerors of the South Pole - the Amundsen-Scott Pole.

The New Zealand scientific station on the Ross Sea coast in Antarctica and the Polar Research Institute in Cambridge also bear the name of the polar explorer.

R. Scott's last expedition: Personal diaries of Captain R. Scott, which he kept during the expedition to the South Pole. - M.: Geographizdat, 1955. - 408 p.: ill.

Golovanov Ya. Sketches about scientists. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1983. - 415 pp.: ill.

The chapter dedicated to Scott is called “Fight to the last cracker...” (pp. 290-293).

Ladlem G. Captain Scott: Trans. from English - Ed. 2nd, rev. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1989. - 287 p.: ill.

Priestley R. Antarctic Odyssey: The Northern Party of the R. Scott Expedition: Trans. from English - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1985. - 360 pp.: ill.

Holt K. Competition; Wandering: Transl. from norwegian - M.: Physical culture and sport, 1987. - 301 p.: ill. - (Unusual travels).

Cherry-Garrard E. The Most Terrible Journey: Trans. from English - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1991. - 551 p.: ill.

STANLEY (STANLEY) Henry Morton

(real name and surname - John Rowland)

journalist, researcher of Africa

Travel routes

1871-1872 - G.M. Stanley, as a correspondent for the New York Herald newspaper, participated in the search for the missing D. Livingston. The expedition was successful: the great explorer of Africa was found near Lake Tanganyika.

1874-1877 - G.M. Stanley crosses the African continent twice. Explores Lake Victoria, the Congo River, and searches for the sources of the Nile.

1887-1889 - G.M. Stanley leads an English expedition that crosses Africa from West to East, and explores the Aruvimi River.

Name on geographical map

Waterfalls in the upper reaches of the Congo River are named in honor of G.M. Stanley.

Stanley G.M. In the wilds of Africa: Trans. from English - M.: Geographizdat, 1958. - 446 p.: ill.

Karpov G.V. Henry Stanley. - M.: Geographgiz, 1958. - 56 p.: ill. - (Notable geographers and travelers).

Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. narratives. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000. - 415 p.: ill. - (Life of remarkable people: Biography of the library of F. Pavlenkov).

KHABAROV Erofey Pavlovich

(c. 1603, according to other data, c. 1610 - after 1667, according to other data, after 1671)

Russian explorer and navigator, explorer of the Amur region

Travel routes

1649-1653 - E.P. Khabarov made a number of campaigns in the Amur region, compiled a “Drawing of the Amur River.”

Name on geographical map

The city and the region are named after the Russian explorer. Far East, as well as the Erofey Pavlovich railway station on the Trans-Siberian Railway.

Leontyeva G.A. Explorer Erofey Pavlovich Khabarov: Book. for students. - M.: Education, 1991. - 143 p.: ill.

Romanenko D.I. Erofey Khabarov: Novel. - Khabarovsk: Book. publishing house, 1990. - 301 p.: ill. - (Far Eastern library).

Safronov F.G. Erofey Khabarov. - Khabarovsk: Book. publishing house, 1983. - 32 p.

SCHMIDT Otto Yulievich

Russian mathematician, geophysicist, Arctic explorer

Travel routes

1929-1930 - O.Yu. Schmidt equipped and led the expedition on the ship “Georgy Sedov” to Severnaya Zemlya.

1932 - an expedition led by O.Yu. Schmidt on the icebreaker Sibiryakov managed for the first time to sail from Arkhangelsk to Kamchatka in one navigation.

1933-1934 - O.Yu. Schmidt led the northern expedition on the steamship “Chelyuskin”. The ship, caught in ice, was crushed by ice and sank. The expedition members, who had been drifting on ice floes for several months, were rescued by pilots.

Name on geographical map

An island in the Kara Sea, a cape on the coast of the Chukchi Sea, the peninsula of Novaya Zemlya, one of the peaks and a pass in the Pamirs, and a plain in Antarctica are named after O.Yu. Schmidt.

Voskoboynikov V.M. On an ice trek. - M.: Malysh, 1989. - 39 p.: ill. - (Legendary heroes).

Voskoboynikov V.M. Call of the Arctic: Heroic. Chronicle: Academician Schmidt. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1975. - 192 pp.: ill. - (Pioneer means first).

Duel I.I. Life line: Document. story. - M.: Politizdat, 1977. - 128 p.: ill. - (Heroes of the Soviet Motherland).

Nikitenko N.F. O.Yu.Schmidt: Book. for students. - M.: Education, 1992. - 158 p.: ill. - (People of science).

Otto Yulievich Schmidt: Life and work: Sat. - M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1959. - 470 p.: ill.

Matveeva L.V. Otto Yulievich Schmidt: 1891-1956. - M.: Nauka, 1993. - 202 p.: ill. - (Scientific-biography ser.).

Throughout the history of mankind, numerous geographical discoveries have occurred, but only those that were made at the end of the 15th - first half of the 16th centuries were called Great. Indeed, never before or after this historical moment have there been discoveries of such magnitude and of such enormous significance for humanity. European navigators discovered entire continents and oceans, huge uncharted lands, inhabited by peoples completely unfamiliar to them. The discoveries of that time amazed the imagination and revealed European world completely new development prospects that could not even be dreamed of before.

Prerequisites for the Great Geographical Discoveries

The sailors of that era had not only a great goal, but also the means to achieve it. Progress in navigation led to the appearance in the 15th century. a new type of vessel capable of long ocean voyages. It was a caravel - a fast, maneuverable ship, the sailing equipment of which allowed it to move even in a headwind. At the same time, instruments appeared that made it possible to navigate on long sea voyages, primarily the astrolabe - a tool for determining geographical coordinates, latitude and longitude. European cartographers learned to make special navigation maps that made it easier to plot courses across the ocean.

The goal of the Europeans was India, which appeared to their imagination as a country with incalculable riches. India has been known in Europe since ancient times, and goods brought from there have always been used in great demand. However, there were no direct connections with her. Trade was carried out through numerous intermediaries, and states located on the routes to India prevented the development of its contacts with Europe. The Turkish conquests of the late Middle Ages led to a sharp decline in trade, which was very profitable for European merchants. The countries of the East were superior to the West in terms of wealth and level of economic development at that time, so trade with them was the most profitable type of business activity in Europe.

After the Crusades, as a result of which the European population became familiar with the values of everyday Eastern culture, its needs for luxury goods, other everyday goods and spices increased. Pepper, for example, was then literally worth its weight in gold. The need for gold itself also increased sharply, as the development of trade was accompanied by a rapid expansion of money circulation. All this prompted the search for new trade routes to the East, bypassing Turkish and Arab possessions. India became a magical symbol that inspired brave sailors.

Swimming of Vasco da Gama

The Portuguese were the first to embark on the path of great discoveries. Portugal, before other states of the Iberian Peninsula, completed the Reconquista and transferred the fight against the Moors to the territory North Africa. Throughout the 15th century. Portuguese sailors in search of gold, ivory and other exotic goods moved far south along the African coast. The inspiration for these voyages was Prince Enrique, who received the honorary nickname “The Navigator” for this.

In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias discovered the southern tip of Africa, called the Cape of Good Hope. After that historical discovery The Portuguese took a direct route across the Indian Ocean to the wonderland that beckoned them.

In 1497-1499. the squadron under the command of Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) made the first voyage to India and back, thus paving the most important trade route to the East, which was old dream European sailors. In the Indian port of Calicut, the Portuguese purchased so many spices that the income from their sale was 60 times higher than the cost of organizing the expedition.

The sea route to India was discovered and charted, allowing Western European sailors to regularly make these extremely profitable voyages.

Discoveries of Christopher Columbus

Meanwhile, Spain joined the discovery process. In 1492, her troops crushed the Emirate of Granada - the last Moorish state in Europe. The triumphant completion of the Reconquista made it possible to direct the foreign policy power and energy of the Spanish state to new grandiose achievements.

The problem was that Portugal achieved recognition of its exclusive rights to the lands and sea routes discovered by its sailors. A way out of the situation was offered by advanced science of the time. The Italian scientist Paolo Toscanelli, convinced of the spherical shape of the Earth, proved that you can reach India if you sail from Europe not to the east, but in the opposite direction - to the west.

Another Italian, a sailor from Genoa, Cristobal Colon, who went down in history under the Spanish name Christopher Columbus (1451-1506), developed on this basis a project for an expedition to find a western route to India. He managed to achieve his approval by the Spanish royal couple - King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.

X. Columbus

After a multi-day voyage, on October 12, 1492, his ships reached about. San Salvador, located near the coast of America. This day is considered the date of the discovery of America, although Columbus himself was convinced that he had reached the shores of India. That is why the inhabitants of the lands he discovered began to be called Indians.

Until 1504, Columbus made three more voyages, during which he made new discoveries in the basin Caribbean Sea.

Since the descriptions of the two “Indies” discovered by the Portuguese and the Spaniards differed sharply from each other, the names East (Eastern) and West (Western) Indies were assigned to them. Gradually, the Europeans came to realize that it was not easy different countries, but even different continents. At the suggestion of Amerigo Vespucci, the lands discovered in the Western Hemisphere began to be called the New World, and soon the new part of the world was named after the insightful Italian. The name West Indies was assigned only to the islands located between the shores of North and South America. The East Indies began to be called not only India itself, but also other countries of Southeast Asia, including Japan.

Discovery of the Pacific Ocean and the first circumnavigation of the world

America, which at first did not bring much income to the Spanish crown, was seen as an annoying obstacle on the way to rich India, which stimulated further searches. Of utmost importance was the discovery of a new ocean on the other side of America.

In 1513, the Spanish conqueror Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the shores of a sea unknown to Europeans, which was first called the South Sea (in contrast to the Caribbean Sea, located north of the Isthmus of Panama). Subsequently it turned out that this is an entire ocean, which we now know as the Pacific. That's what the organizer of the first in history called it. circumnavigation Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521).

F. Magellan

A Portuguese navigator who entered Spanish service, he was convinced that if he circumnavigated America from the south, it would be possible to reach India by the western sea route. In 1519, his ships set sail, and the following year, having crossed the strait named after the leader of the expedition, they entered the vastness of the Pacific Ocean. Magellan himself died in a clash with the population of one of the islands, later called the Philippine Islands. During the voyage, most of his crew also died, but 18 of the 265 crew members, led by captain H.-S. El Cano, on the only surviving ship, completed the first voyage around the world in 1522, thus proving the existence of a single World Ocean connecting all the continents of the Earth.

The discoveries of sailors in Portugal and Spain gave rise to the problem of delimiting the possessions of these powers. In 1494, the two countries signed a spanish city The Treaty of Tordesillas, according to which a demarcation line was drawn across the Atlantic Ocean, from the North Pole to the South Pole. All newly discovered lands to the east of it were declared the possession of Portugal, to the west - of Spain.

After 35 years, a new treaty was concluded delimiting the possessions of the two powers in the Pacific Ocean. This is how the first division of the world took place.

“The existence of such a path can be proven based on the spherical shape of the Earth.” It is necessary to “begin sailing continuously to the west,” “in order to reach places where all kinds of spices and precious stones are in greatest abundance. Do not be surprised that I call the country where spices grow west, while they are usually called east, because people who constantly sail to the west reach these countries by sailing on the other side of the globe.”
“This country is worth seeking out for the Latins, not only because great treasures, gold, silver and all kinds of precious stones and spices can be obtained from there, but also for the sake of its learned people, philosophers and skilled astrologers, and also in order to find out how how such a vast and populous country is governed and how they conduct their wars.”

References:
V.V. Noskov, T.P. Andreevskaya / History from the end of the 15th to the end of the 18th century

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